Ceres
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Ceres is one of the Dii Consentes of the Cultus Deorum Romanorum, and an ancient Italo-Roman goddess of agriculture and growth with dominion over grain crops, and the fertility of the Earth. Ceres is the only Roman agricultural deity to hold a place in the lists of the Dii Consentes, the twelve deities of the Roman pantheon who are equivalent to the twelve Olympians of Greece. The presence of a flamen in association with the cult of Ceres is a mark of antiquity and an indication that her worship has deep roots in archaic Roman history. [1] Within the pantheon of the Cultus Deorum Romanorum, Ceres is associated with Ops, Acca Larentia and the earth-goddess Tellus. It is possible that these names all refer to aspects of the numen referred to as Dea Dia by the Arval brotherhood. Beyond the Roman and Italic deities, she would later be identified with the Greek goddess Demeter and her mythology after the establishment of the new Greek cult in Rome during the late 3rd century BCE. [2]
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Etymology
The goddess' name is so obscured by history that we cannot be sure that 'Ceres' is not a sex-indifferent noun. [3] The earliest evidence that we have for dea Ceres is an inscription of her name. In fact, the name Ceres is the oldest written evidence that we have of any Roman deity. Her name is inscribed on an urn found in the necropolis of Civita Castellana (ancient Falerii) dated to circa 600 BCE: "Let Ceres give grain [far]." 'Ceres' is derived from the Indo-European root, *ker- 'growth,' which indicates to us that her origins can be dated prior to the split of Proto-Indo-European into the multiple languages of the Indo-European family. [4] We can be sure of the meaning of *ker- from the Latin derivative crescere, which means "to come forth, grow," and the Latin creare, "to produce, make, create, bring forth, or beget." When combined with the respectful ritual epithet of mater, the goddess' name means "The Creating Mother." [4] The same root within the name Ceres is also found in the name of the Roman god Cerus, which suggests association or identification with this Janus-like deity, but she is not found associated with Cerus anywhere in cultic practice. However, from the similarity of the name 'Ceres' with 'Cerus,' we can see that she is the numen or indwelling divine power that both produces living things and provides the cause for them to grow. [4]
Cult, Beliefs, and Temple
Ceres is associated with human fertility and agricultural fertility, through the growing of crops, specifically wheat, barley, spelt, and cereals. Her festivals are timed to occur at specific points during the agricultural growing season. She is also associated with the underworld through the thrice-yearly ritual opening of the mundus Cereris and the funeral rites of the Porca Praesentanea and Porca Praecidanea. [4]
At the Aventine temple dedicated in 493 BCE, Ceres was worshipped with her children Liber and Libera. This cultus would later be interpreted to correspond to the Greek Eleusinian cultus of Demeter, Kore/Persephone, and Iacchus/Dionysus. [1] Ceres is undeniably the nexus and primary figure of the triad. The 5th century BCE incarnation of the cult placed more emphasis and focus on Liber pater and relegated the goddess Libera to a tertiary position. It was not until the third century adoption of the imported Graeca sacra festa Cereris/sacrum anniversarium Cereris, (the Roman interpretation of the Greek Thesmophoria which celebrated the reuniting of Demeter and Persephone) that Libera would receive increased attention due to her being equated with Persephone. [5]
April 19th, the fixed holiday of Ceres, the primary and most prominent member of the Triad, was chosen as the temple consecration date. Liber and Libera were added to the Aventine cult at a later date. [3]
The Aventine hill is said to have passed into the possession of the plebs in 456 BCE. The foundation year of the temple (493 BCE) is the same year that marks the first secession of the plebs, the establishment of the tribuni, and the appointing of the aediles plebis [2]. The plebeian aediles used the Aventine temple as their headquarters and archives [1], and were responsible for its care, and the organizing of the feriae, ludi, and lectisternia/sellisternia in Ceres' honor. [2]
When the Aventine temple was built, Ceres was not yet considered the Roman equivalent of the Greek Demeter. Her identity was purely Italic, and the cult that was introduced traditionally in 493 BCE was based on Italic and Roman precedents, including the ritual format: all rites were conducted according to Ritus Romanus. [5]
It has also been argued, however, that the cult of Ceres was from its inception not Roman, but Greek. Per Livy, in 492 BCE corn was purchased from Etruria, Cumae, and Sicily to relieve a famine in Rome. We cannot discount the possibility that the establishment of the cult has a connection to Greece and Greek cities due to the efforts to alleviate the suffering of a starving plebeian population. [2]
Additionally, the priestesses of Ceres for the new Greek rites adopted in the third century were Greek immigrants brought up from Sicily, and many of the rituals and supplications to Ceres were conducted in the Greek language. The Greek Priestesses of Ceres were granted Roman citizenship so that they might pray to the Gods as citizens on behalf of other citizens, instead of as peregrini on behalf of citizens. [5] The rituals performed by the Greek priestesses of Ceres were performed Ritus Graecus. [6]
Holy Days and Festivals
The festivals of Ceres fall under the classification of 'agrarian observances' which are extremely ancient. These festivals are also in alignment with the natural, 'cosmic' calendar due to their themes of growth, harvest, fallow-period, and the celebration of a completed product made from their produce. This can be seen in the observance of the first Vinalia on April 23rd. In summation, agrarian cycles mark the beginning of the food production cycle through to its completion. As such, Ceres has a greater number of festivals observed in her honor than the majority of the Dii Consentes. [6]
We know from Tibullus that prior to all sacrifices, all participants were bound to uphold a certain degree of ritual purity. Hands were washed ceremonially, and worshippers abstained from sexual intercourse the night before the holy days. [7]
THE SEMENTIVAE & PAGANALIA: ANTE DIEM IX-VII KAL. FEBRUARIUS (XXIV – XXVI IANUARIIS) (FERIAE CONCEPTIVAE)
These 'moveable' celebrations were farmer's rites for the sowing of seed. Moveable rites (feriae conceptivae) had no fixed dates and were announced by proclamation of the Collegium Pontificum. [8] Rural observances included sacrifices to Tellus and Ceres on two separate days during the final week of Ianuarius. [9] Cakes were offered on the hearths of the village. A pregnant sow was sacrificed, and the entrails offered to the goddesses, as well as the ritual wheat. Tellus and Ceres were entreated to protect the seed against birds and ants, the shoots against icy cold spells, ‘rust,’ bad weather and rye grass. [2]
LUDI CERERI & CERIALIA: PR. IDUS APRILIUS - ANTE DIEM XIII KALENDS MARTIUS (XII - XIX APRILIBUS)
The Cerealia is the festival of primary importance in honoring Ceres as the Goddess of Grain and Agriculture and Protectress of the Plebs. [9] You may give the goddess Ceres some spelt, and the compliment of spurting salt and grains of incense on old hearths; and if there is no incense kindle resin torches. Good Ceres is content with little, if that little be but pure. [8] The festival begins on April 12th and concludes on April 19th with the dies natalis of the Aventine temple to Ceres, Liber, and Libera. We have no conclusive information about the rites that were performed at the temple, though we do have information about the games and know that white was worn by the celebrants. [1] During the final day of the festival, a pregnant sow was sacrificed, and foxes with burning torches tied to their tails were released onto the Circus Maximus. There were horse races, and a lectisternium was held by the plebeian aediles at the Aventine temple in honor of the three deities. [2] The rustic and rural observations of the festival involved a circumambulation of the fields and specific offerings. [9]
...when the clear spring has come (vere sereno)... then let all your country folk worship Ceres and offer milk, honey and wine, and for good luck carry the luck-bringing sacrifical victim three times round the young crops. [10]
In the evening of this final day of the festival, plebeian families gathered in the spirit of hospitality, dining together. [1]
THE AMBARVALIA: ODD YEARS. ANTE DIEM VI - IV KALENDS IUNIUS (XXVII – XXIX MAIIS) (FERIAE CONCEPTIVAE)
This festival was also referred to as the "Beating of the Bounds," and its purpose was to purify the fields from all baneful influences. [9] Farmers wearing wreaths of oak leaves, olive leaves, and carrying olive branches would lead a procession of victims around the circumference of the fields. These sacrificial victims included bull, sheep, and pig (suovetaurilia). Together with the olive branch, they represented the farmer's most valuable stock, suitable for pleasing the Gods. [2] According to Cato, appeasement was primarily directed at Father Mars, the god of strength, but Ceres, the goddess of growth and Bacchus were also invoked and supplicated to promote the growth and health of crops and livestock. [9]
MUNDUS CERERIS PATET (1ST OCCURENCE): ANTE DIEM VIII KALENDS SEPTEMBER (XXIV SEXTILIBUS)
Information for this observance is scarce. The Mundus Cereris Patet does not appear on any calendars, but we know from the writings of Festus that it was opened on this day, the 5th of October, and the 8th of November. The word mundus means 'pit,' and it is most likely that the openings occurred for the storing of grain and seed during the harvest season. [2] A tradition of the gates of the underworld being opened to allow the manes to walk among the living seems to have been grafted onto the occasion at some point. [9]
SACRUM ANNIVERSARIUM CERERIS: UNKNOWN DATE, SEXTILIUS
It is possible that this festival began on the Kalends of August and concluded with a feast on August 10, but without more information from primary sources yet to be discovered, it is unlikely that we shall ever know the truth of its timing. This observance was most likely based upon the rites of the Hellenic Thesmophoria; a 3-day affair which was performed only by women and feted the discovery of Kore-Proserpine. The women, dressed in white, were obliged to continence (sexual abstinence) and fasting from dawn until dusk. Cicero mentions women-only nocturnal initiations and mysteries. [4] When Ceres sought through all the earth with lit torches for Proserpina, who had been seized by Dis Pater, she called her with shouts where three or four roads meet; from this it has endured in her rites that on certain days a lamentation is raised at the crossroads everywhere by the matronae, just as in [the rite] of Isis. [11] We know from the writings of Ovid, Livy, and Cicero that this annual festival celebrated only by women was a thanksgiving feast. The women, dressed in white brought the offerings of first fruits to the goddess. They prepared themselves for it by fasting and separating from their husbands for nine days. The time of Ceres' festival had come, In duty kept by mothers every year, When, robed in white, they bring their firstfruit gifts Of wheat in garlands, and for nine nights count Love and the touch of men forbidden things. [12] It was interrupted in BCE 216 by a defeat suffered during the battle of Cannae on August 2nd, a reference which provides us with the month of its occurrence. Announcement was then made from house to house of the losses they had each sustained, and the entire City was so filled with lamentation that the annual rite of Ceres was allowed to lapse, since it may not be performed by mourners, nor was there at that time a single matron who was not bereaved. [13]
IEIUNIUM CERERIS: ANTE DIEM IV NON. OCTOBRIBUS (IV OCTOBRIBUS)
In 191 BCE the Sibylline Books were consulted and a fast (nesteia) in honor of Ceres every five years was prescribed in response to a series of terrible prodigies. [1] Showers of stones and lighting strikes were interpreted to be a sign of Ceres' displeasure. [5] It may be that that the public fast was established to appease Ceres, should the goddess have taken offense to the establishment of the temple of Magna Mater in that same year. [4] By the time of Emperor Augustus, the fast was an annual occurrence, observed every year on October 4th. [1] As in the Anniversarium Sacrum Cereris, the fast likely took place from dawn until dusk, and required abstinence from sexual relations in addition to provisions.
MUNDUS CERERIS PATET (2ND TIME): ANTE DIEM III NON. OCTOBRIBUS (V OCTOBRIBUS)
This was the second of three days on which the mundus was open.
MUNDUS CERERIS PATET (3RD AND FINAL TIME): ANTE DIEM VI IDUS NOVEMBRIBUS (VIII NOVEMBRIBUS)'
This was the last of three days on which the mundus was open.
LUDI PLEBEII: PR. NONUS NOVEMBRIBUS - XIV KALENDS DECEMBRIBUS (IV-XVII NOVEMBRIBUS)
The Plebeian Games were first mentioned in 216 BCE and became firmly established as an annual event by 220 BCE. While the central event in the midst of these games is the sacrifice and feast in Jupiter’s honor on the Ides, Ceres as Protectress of the Plebs received due accolades from the plebeian aediles and her consecrated priests. After the opening of the games by the aediles, the priests of Ceres offered up sacrifices in her honor. [9]
LECTISTERNIUM CERERIS: IDUS DECEMBRIBUS (XIII DECEMBRIBUS)
Tellus and Ceres were honored to mark the end of the Autumn sowing. This event took place at the temple of Tellus, and this occasion is the only annual public lectisternium to be recorded in the Fasti. [1] The lectisternium is a 'banquet for the gods' that has its roots in the Greek tradition of theoxenia 'hosting the gods at a meal.' [6] The statue of Ceres was ceremonially carried from her home in the Aventine temple to the temple of Tellus for the feast. The Ides of December mark the dedication of the temple to Tellus, and the structure housed the Senate on certain occasions. A map of Italy adorned one of its interior walls. [9]
SACRIFICE TO CERES AND DIVUS HERCULES: ANTE DIEM XII KAL. IANUARIUS (XXI DECEMBRIBUS)
Ceres and Hercules both received a sacrifice on this day. The acceptable blood offering was the sacrifice of a pregnant sow. Bloodless offerings included bread and must. [14]
References
1. Scullard, H.H. Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. Ithaca: Cornell Thames & Hudson, 1981.
2. Fowler, W. Warde. The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic: An Introduction to the Study of the Religion of the Romans. Good Press, 2019.
3. Lipka, Mike. Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach. Brill Academic Publishing, 2009.
4. Spaeth, Barbette. The Roman Goddess Ceres. University of Texas Press, 1996.
5. Orlin, Eric. Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, 2010.
6. Scheid, John. Introduction to Roman Religion. Edinburgh University Press, 2003.
7. Tibullus. Elegiae. Trans. Theodore Williams. The Riverside Press Cambridge, 1908.
8. Ovid. Fasti. Trans. Anne and Peter Wiseman. Oxford University Press, 2011.
9. Bernstein, Francis. Classical Living: Reconnecting with the Rituals of Ancient Rome, HarperSanFrancisco, 2000.
10. Virgil. Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid. Translated by Fairclough. H R. Loeb Classical Library Volumes 63 & 64. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press, 1916.
11. Servius. On Virgil's Aenead. Trans. Christopher M. McDonough, Richard E. Prior and Mark Stanbury. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc. 2004.
12. Ovid. Metamorphoses. Trans. A.D. Melville. Oxford University Press, 1986.
13. Livy. History of Rome. Trans. Rev. Canon Roberts. J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London, 1905.
14. Brouwer, H.H.J. Bona Dea: The Sources and a Description of the Cult. Brill Academic Publishing, 1989.
