Volturnus

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The Roman god Volturnus, or Tiberis Pater, was the tutelary deity of the Tiber river. He was one of the di indigetes, and, like the other ancient Gods of Rome, he was served by a flamen, the Flamen Volturnalis. His festival, the Volturnalia, was a market day celebrated a.d. VI Kal. Sept. ‡.

Etymology

The etymology of Volturnus is uncertain. It is thought to derive from volvere, "to roll along or wind around".

History

Little is known about Volturnus, although scholars have attempted to reconstruct his myth and role in the Cultus Deorum.

Volturnus was one of 15 Gods served by state-sponsored flamines, in a system conventionally said to have been established by Numa. From that fact, Volturnus was probably an agricultural deity, Although the subject is controversial, the authority of the flamines seems to have been overthrown by a pontifical revolution when the Roman religion was reconstituted along Greek lines. This reform took place at early but unknown date, perhaps about 350 BCE. Thereafter, the original deities declined in importance. By the beginning of the Republic, the flamines seem to have been anachronistic. By the time of Varro (116 BCE - 27 BCE), a scholar who collected the surviving materials, there were only traces left of the old religion. He reported the survival of a Flamen Volturnalis, but found the God to be "obscure"^[1].

Surviving fragments show that Volturnus was a river God, and, being Roman, the river must have been the Tiber. However, the identification encounters immediate difficulties. The tutelary God of the Tiber was almost certainly named Tiberinus by the Latins, while the Volturnus is a river in Campania. The prevailing view among scholars is that Volturnus was the cult name of the Tiber's God^[2].

The river God of the Tiber apparently acquired his name from an Etruscan analog. The city of Capua in Campania was anciently called Volturnum. It is situated on the Volturno (anc. Voluturnus) river, which apparently had a Samnite river God of the same name. Rome extended its borders to the Volturno during the Latin War (340-338 BCE), and decisively defeated the Samnites on the other side of the Volturno during the Third Samnite War (298-290 BCE). The Samnites were allowed to retain their independence, becoming allies of Rome. Probably, Volturnus' cult was brought to Rome at this time^[3]. Then, at some unknown date, the cults of the river Gods Tiberinus and Volturnus were conflated. Such removals of Gods to Rome were commonplace, the most famous being when Camillus evoked Uni from Veii, and installed her at Rome as Iuno Regina.

A minority view among scholars is that Volturnus was a generic God of rivers^[4], and gave his name both to the Tiber and the Volturno.

Correspondences to Other Gods

Janus

Some scholars equate Volturnus with Janus, the Roman calendrical god, but by the time of the late Republic Volturnus was conventionally regarded as father of Janus' wife Juturna.

Portunus

Mommsen identified Volturnus with Portunus, as well as with Tiberinus, on the basis of a late calendar where the Portinalia is also called the Tiberinalia.^[5]. Further, the sacrifices on that day were held "in porto Tiberindo."^[6]

Turnus

By the time of the Late Republic, Volturnus might have been identified with the Latin hero Turnus, King of the Rutuli. In the Trojan legend, Vergil identified Iuturna, daughter of Volturnus and wife of Janus, as the sister of Turnus^[7]. Aeneas, on his journey to Rome, defeated Turnus.

Vertumnus

Vertumnus was the Etruscan Bacchus, God of wine and fruits. His consort Voltumna, whom the Romans equated with Pomona, was the patron of the Etruscan League. Dennis notes that Vertumnus was called Vortumnus by Varro^[8] and speculates that he was identical with the Volturnus mentioned by Festus^[9] and Varro^[10] – “though neither recognise the relation in this case."^[11].

Velthurna, the equivalent of Voltumna or Volturna was an Etruscan family-name attested by sepulchral inscriptions at Perugia and Sovana^[12]. It has been suggested that Volturnus was originally the tutelary deity of the Etruscan Velthur family.^[13].

Vulturnus

Lucretius associated Volturnus with the Tempestates: "And other Winds do follow: the high roar Of great Volturnus, and the Southwind strong With thunder-bolts."^[14]

From this passage, it appears the Romans might have equated Volturnus with Vulturnus, one of the Venti. Vulturnus' Greek analog was Eurus (Εύρος), the God of the east wind, and a son of Eos, possibly by Astræus. In Italy, the Vulturno, now called the Scirocco, blows from the southeast. The Vulturno takes its name from Monte Vulture (anc. Vultur).

Those who equate Volturnus with Vulturnus believe that the Volturnalia was a festival to avert the drought caused by these drying winds.

However, most contemporary scholars separate Volturnus the river from Vulturnus the east wind and point to the timing of the Volturnalia at harvest time as evidence that it would have been offered in thanks for the irrigation water drawn from rivers rather than as a supplication to avert drought.

Mythology

According to ancient authorities, the Tiber was originally called Albula. It it said to have been renamed Tiberis, but details vary.

Vergil says the river was re-named for Thybris, an ancient king. He has Evander recount the history of the area to Aeneas, saying:

   There were Kings, for instance Thybris with his vast
   Body from whom in after times we Italians
   Have named the river Tiber, and it lost
   Its true and ancient name of Albula.[15]
   

It was renamed for a youth who drowned there.

Another version says that the river was renamed for the ninth legendary king of Alba Longa, Tiberinus Silvius, a descendant of Aeneas.

Tiberinus aided Aeneas on his journey advising him to settle in Latium^[16].

Under Greek influence, the Romans included Volturnus as one of the Oceanids, the 3,000 children of Oceanus and Tethys. Each of these children was the patron of a particular river, spring or lake.

Consorts and Children

Albunea

Albunea was probably the original cult partner, and perhaps the wife, of Albula, the ancient name of the Tiber river. Albunea was a nymph who resided near Tivoli (anc. Tibur) at a sulfuric spring on the Aniene (anc. Anio) river, where she had a small temple above the falls. She was the Tiburtine sibyl, the tenth in a series of famous sibyls. From Etruscan times, it was the seat of the Tiburtine Sibyl. Originally a colony of Alba Longa, Tivoli was conquered by the Sabines, and later defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 338 BCE.

"The Tiburtine Sibyl, by name Albunea, is worshiped at Tibur as a goddess, near the banks of the Anio, in which stream her image is said to have been found, holding a book in her hand. Her oracular responses the Senate transferred into the capitol."^[17]

Manto

Tiberinus was the husband of Manto. Her legend is Greek rather than Roman. She was a daughter of Tiresias, the blind prophet, who in turn was the son of the shepherd Everes and the nymph Chariclo. Tiresias died after drinking water from a spring, and apparently became an oracular hero, for he was visited in the underworld by Odysseus. Manto is said to have been brought to Delphi as a war prize during the War of the Epigonoi. Apollo sent her to Colophon to found an oracle devoted to him. Instead, she went to Italy, where she married Tiberinus.^[18]

Rhea Silvia

Rhea Silvia was a Vestal Virgin, seduced by Mars. When she gave birth to the twins Romulus and Remus, the twins were exposed and she was sentenced to death by her uncle. Tiberinus found the twins, gave them to the she-wolf Lupa to suckle, then rescued and married their mother.

Ocnus

Ocnus is said to have been son of Tiberinus and Manto. Ocnus is said to have founded Mantova, which he named for his mother. Alternatively, Mantova was named after another Manto, who was a daughter of Heracles, or after Mantus, the Etruscan God of the Underworld.

However, other authorities make Ocnus a son or brother of Auletes and the founder of Bologna (anc. Felsina).^[19]

Iuturna

Volturnus was the father (or lover) of Iuturna, the Camena who was wife (or daughter) of Janus, the calendar god. Iuppiter turned her into a nymph and gave her a spring near Lavinium on the Numicus river. Iuturna was later associated with a pool near the temple of Vesta in the Forum Romanum.

Fontus

Through Iuturna, Volturnus was a grandfather of Fontus. Fontus (or Fons), was the god/dess of springs. The Fontinalia, in her honor, was held a.d. III Id. Oct. ‡ when springs in Rome begin to flow again after the summer heat.

Cult

Tiberinus was able, when propitiated, to heal the diseases that his waters were supposed to bring.^[20].

There are hints that human sacrifice might have once honored Volturnus. A common feature of Mediterranean river gods is the belief that the rivers resent being crossed. We see this belief indirectly in connection with the Romans. One of the omens of Caesar's impending assassination: "Soon after this, news reached Caesar that the herd of horses which he dedicated to the spirit of the River Rubicon, after his crossing, who were allowed to roam freely in the valley, were showing disdain for the pasture, and crying copious amount of tears."

Festivals

Volturnalia

The festival of Volturnus, called the Volturnalia was celebrated on a.d. VI Kal. Sept. ‡ and belonged to the Numan calendar^[21]. Details of the Volturnalia have not survived, but we have fragments addressed to Volturnus. We know that the Volturnalia was celebrated with feasting, wine-drinking and games. In the opinion of the Pontifex Maximus of Nova Roma, “At the very least a "standard" ritual of sacrifice, Roman feast, and standard Roman games would be a passable reconstruction of the day, pending the discovery of further specific information."^[22]

Some scholars say Volturnus' daughter Iuturna was honored the same day. However, she also had her own festival, the Iuturnalia, a.d. III Id. Ian. ‡.

Epigraphy

"Inde aliae tempestates ventique secuntur, altitonans Volturnus et Auster fulmine pollens."^[23]

In a statement lauding Domitian’s technological achievement channeling the Volturno river, Volturnus is made to say amnis esse coepi, I have begun to be a river; meaning that he has become his true self.

Iconography

The most famous representation of Father Tiber is a 17th century statue on the Capitoline.

At Corneta, in the Grotta delle Iscrizioni, is a representation of a man having a fish offered to him. Gerhard identifies this as Vertumnus^[24], but it could have been Volturnus.

A bust of Volturnus, dating from the 2nd century BCE, survives at the Arch of S. Eligio in Capua.

References

1. ↑ Varro, Lingua Latine, 7:45
2. ↑ Cf. Einar Gjerstad, Early Rome. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup (1953), 25. This was the view of Theodor Mommsen, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL), 327; but see Georges Dumézil, Archaic Roman Religion. Johns Hopkins Univ. Pr. (1966, 1996), 388-89
3. ↑ Andreas Alfödi, Early Rome and the Latins. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press (1971), 206
4. ↑ Cf. Shailer Mathews and Gerald Birney Smith, A Dictionary of Religion and Ethics sub Roman Religion. Macmillan (1921), 384
5. ↑ CIL citing Fast. Philocal., 327
6. ↑ Varro, Lingua Latine 6.19
7. ↑ Vergil, Aeneid 12; Amanda Claridge, Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. New York: Oxford University Press (1998), 95
8. ↑ Varro, Lingua Latine 5.8; 6:3
9. ↑ Festus, ap. Paul. Diac. v. Volturnalia
10. ↑ Varro, Lingua Latine 8.45
11. ↑ George Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London: John Murray, 1848.
12. ↑ George Dennis. The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London: John Murray, 1848.
13. ↑ Hendrik Wagenvoort, Pietas: Studies in Roman Religion Boston: Brill (1980), 237, citing Altheim
14. ↑ Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 5.742
15. ↑ Vergil, Aeneid 1.8
16. ↑ Vergil, Aeneid 10.198 ff.
17. ↑ Lactantius, Divine Institutes 1.6, citing Varro.
18. ↑ Vergil, Aeneid 10.199
19. ↑ Vergil, Aeneid 10.198
20. ↑ Walter Addison Jayne, Healing Gods of Ancient Civilizations. Kessinger Publishing Company (1925, 2003), 440-41
21. ↑ Einar Gjerstad, Early Rome. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup (1953), 246
22. ↑ Marcus Cassius Iulianus. Message at http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ReligioRomana/message/3255, message dated November 26, 2002, from Marcus Cassius Julianus, visited January 1, 2004.
23. ↑ Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 5.742
24. ↑ George Dennis. The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London: John Murray, 1848, citing Gottheiten der Etrusker, 31

Further Reading

Primary Sources

Festus, ap. Paul. Diac. v. Volturnalia.

Lactantius, Divine Institutes.

Lucretius, De Rerum Natura.

Prop. 6.2.

Varro, Lingua Latine.

Vergil, Aeneid.

Secondary Sources

Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL).

Joel Le Gall, Recherches sur le culte du Tibre (Paris 1953).

External Links

This article incorporates the text of an article of the same name, originally published at Gens Ambrosia.