Choosing a Roman name

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The system of Roman names was unique and distinctive in the ancient world. When a foreigner became a Roman citizen he took a new Roman name as a mark of citizenship. In Nova Roma, too, we ask that you choose a Roman name when you become a citizen.

The name you choose is the name you will be known by in Nova Roma, so choose carefully and seriously. These pages contain information to help you. If, after reading this, you have any more questions, please contact the Censores.

Contents 1 Tria Nomina 1.1 Praenomen 1.1.1 Abbreviations 1.1.2 Inheritance 1.1.3 List of Standard Praenomina 1.2 Nomen 1.2.1 Inheritance 1.2.2 List of Nomina 1.3 Cognomen 1.3.1 The Characteristics of Cognomina 1.3.2 Inheritance 1.3.3 Ancient Republican Cognomina 1.3.4 Geographical Cognomina 1.3.5 Occupational Cognomina 1.3.6 Latinising your own name 1.3.7 Other Latin Words 1.3.8 Multiple Cognomina 1.3.9 Special Cognomina 1.3.9.1 Adoptive Cognomina 1.3.9.2 Matronymic Cognomina 1.3.9.3 Agnomina 2 Other Elements 2.1 Filiation 2.2 Tribe 3 Usage 3.1 How Many Names? 3.2 Which Names? 3.2.1 Two Names 3.2.2 One Name 3.2.3 Praenomen Only 3.3 Latin Vocatives 3.4 Addresses Other Than Names 3.4.1 Dominus & Domina 3.4.2 Titles 3.4.3 Relatives 3.4.4 Spouses and Lovers 3.4.5 Friends and Acquaintances 3.4.6 Strangers 3.4.7 Terms of Endearment and Esteem 3.4.8 "Mi" and "O"

Tria Nomina

Most Romans have three names (tria nomina):

• a praenomen (plural praenomina),
• a nomen (plural nomina), and
• a cognomen (plural cognomina).

A few have no cognomen; a few others have more than one cognomen.

Praenomen

Your praenomen is a personal name which distinguishes you from other members of your family. You will not normally be called by your praenomen on its own: normally only close relatives or very close friends call each other by their praenomen alone. (See below under "Usage" for more information on how names are used in conversation.)

There are only a small number of praenomina in ordinary use. These are used by the vast majority of Novi Romani, as they were by the vast majority of ancient Romans.

There are also some rarer praenomina, most of them very old ones. If you have some good reason to want a rare praenomen, you may be allowed to have one, but such requests are very rarely granted and must be personally authorized by the Censor. We strongly recommend that you choose one of the standard ones.

Abbreviations

Note that each of the common praenomina, and some of the rare ones, has a standard abbreviation. Each abbreviation is unique to that praenomen: you cannot abbreviate a praenomen simply by using its first letter. For example, T. always means Titus, never Tiberius; Ti. always means Tiberius, never Titus.

Most of the time praenomina are abbreviated rather than written out in full, so you will normally see M. Tullius Cicero rather than Marcus Tullius Cicero.

Inheritance

Many families use only a handful of praenomina. The first child of a marriage is almost always given the same praenomen as the father; the second child will be given a different praenomen, perhaps the same one as an uncle or grandfather, for example.

Thus the elder son of P. Cornelius Scipio was named P. Cornelius Scipio (Africanus); his younger son was named L. Cornelius Scipio (Asiagenus) after his grandfather.

List of Standard Praenomina

These are the standard praenomina, from most common to least common.

Nomen

Your nomen indicates which gens you belong to. A gens is a loose collection of families sharing the same nomen. In ancient times a new citizen would almost always join an existing gens, and similarly in Nova Roma we ask you to choose a nomen from a closed list.

Inheritance

A Roman always takes the nomen of his father.

List of Nomina

The nomina are listed in their male forms. To make the female form, just replace the ending "-us" with "-a".

Some ancient Roman nomina which are not listed here may also be acceptable. If you want to use a nomen which is not on this list, the Censores will consider your request.

To see the members of a gens, or other details of a gens, see the Album Gentium.

Cognomen

Your cognomen is a family name which would be shared by your blood relatives. Cognomina often refer to a person's appearance or other characteristics, but they do not have to. It is quite common to have a cognomen referring to a place of birth, a job, or some other thing which distinguished the person (usually an ancestor) who first bore that cognomen.

Almost everyone has a cognomen, and it is difficult to distinguish different families within a gens unless cognomina are used. However, strictly speaking, cognomina are not compulsory. If you don't choose one when you first apply for citizenship, you will still be able to add one later.

To help you choose a cognomen, there is a list of ancient Roman cognomina below. But this is not a complete list - the Romans often created new cognomina, and if you want to have one which is not on the list we will be happy to discuss this with you.

The Characteristics of Cognomina

Ancient republican cognomina had certain general characteristics. A person was not given his cognomen by his parents and did not choose it for himself: he either inherited it from his parents or was given it by general consensus within the community. In this sense a cognomen was like a nickname. For this reason, they were usually objective rather than subjective, concrete rather than abstract, and neutral or insulting rather than complimentary.

These characteristics are preserved in Nova Roma. It is important to understand that a cognomen is not a way for you to express your innermost thoughts or aspirations, or to boast about your wonderful qualities. It is just a name.

Inheritance

A Roman almost always takes his father's cognomen, especially if his father himself inherited the name from his father. Cases in which a cognomen may not be passed down from father to son are those where the cognomen is particularly closely associated with the father and would not be relevant to the son.

Agnomina are not usually inherited. Adoptive cognomina and matronymic cognomina are never inherited.

Ancient Republican Cognomina

A cognomen used in the ancient republic will normally be acceptable so long as it complies with the general characteristics noted above. Here is a list of some ancient republican cognomina with their meanings. Some cognomina were used especially by certain gentes: these are noted in the list, but they may also be used by members of other gentes.

Male Form	Female Form	Status	Meaning	Used especially by
Aculeo	Aculeo		Prickly, unfriendly
Agricola	Agricola	OVERUSED	Farmer
Agrippa	Agrippa	OVERUSED	Born feet first	Gens Menenia
Ahala	Ahala		Armpit	Gens Servilia
Ahenobarbus	Ahenobarba		With a red beard	Gens Domitia
Albinus	Albina		Pale, white	Gens Postumia
Albus	Alba		White or fair-skinned	Gens Postumia
Ambustus	Ambusta	SUGGESTED	Burnt, scalded	Gens Fabia
Annalis	Annalis		Relating to years	Gens Villia
Aquila	Aquila	OVERUSED	Eagle
Aquilinus	Aquilina	OVERUSED	Eagle-like
Arvina	Arvina		Fat, lard	Gens Cornelia
Asellio	Asellio		Keeper of donkeys	Gens Sempronia
Asina	Asina		Female donkey	Gens Cornelia
Atellus	Atella		Dark-haired or dark skinned
Avitus	Avita		Grandfatherly
Balbus	Balba	SUGGESTED	Stutterer	Gentes Acilia, Cornelia, Lucilia, Naevia, Octavia
Barba	Barba		A beard
Barbatus	Barbata	OVERUSED	Bearded	Gentes Cornelia, Horatia, Quinctia
Bassus	Bassa		Plump
Bestia	Bestia		Like an animal	Gens Calpurnia
Bibaculus	Bibacula	SUGGESTED	Drunkard	Gentes Furia, Sextia
Bibulus	Bibula	SUGGESTED	Drunkard	Gentes Calpurnia, Publicia
Blaesus	Blaesa	SUGGESTED	Someone who mispronounces words, slurs his speech, stammers, or lisps	Gens Sempronia
Brocchus	Broccha	SUGGESTED	Toothy
Brutus	Bruta		Stupid, dull-witted	Gens Iunia
Bubulcus	Bubulca	SUGGESTED	Cattle-driver	Gens Iunia
Bucco	Bucco	SUGGESTED	Fool, dolt
Bulbus	Bulba	SUGGESTED	Bulb, onion	Gens Atilia
Buteo	Buteo		Buzzard	Gens Fabia
Caecus	Caeca		Blind	Gens Claudia
Caepio	Caepio		Onion-seller	Gens Servilia
Caesar	Caesar	DISCOURAGED	From archaic praenomen Caesar, perhaps meaning "hairy"	Gens Iulia
Calidus	Calida		Hot-headed, rash	Gens Coelia
Calvinus	Calvina		From cognomen Calvus	Gentes Domitia, Veturia
Calvus	Calva	SUGGESTED	Bald
Camillus	Camilla		A child who helps during sacrifices	Gens Furia
Caninus	Canina	OVERUSED	Dog-like	Gens Acilia
Canus	Cana		Golden-haired or grey-haired
Capito	Capito	SUGGESTED	Big-headed	Gens Ateia
Carbo	Carbo		Charcoal	Gens Papirii
Catilina	Catilina			Gens Sergia
Cato	Cato	DISCOURAGED	Shrewd, prudent	Gentes Hostilia, Porcia
Catulus	Catula		Puppy, whelp	Gens Lutatia
Celer	Celeris		Quick
Celsus	Celsa		Tall	Gens Papia
Cethegus	Cethega			Gens Cornelia
Cicero	Cicero	DISCOURAGED	Chick pea	Gens Tullia
Cicurinus	Cicurina		Mild, gentle	Gens Veturia
Cilo	Cilo	SUGGESTED	Large forehead or large lips	Gens Flaminia
Cincinnatus	Cincinnata		Curly-haired	Gens Quinctia
Cinna	Cinna			Gens Cornelia
Cordus	Corda		Born late
Cornicen	Cornicen		Military bugler
Cornutus	Cornuta		Horned	Gens Caecilia, Sulpicia
Corvinus	Corvina		Crow-like	Gens Valeria
Corvus	Corva	OVERUSED	Crow	Gens Valeria
Cossus	Cossa		From archaic praenomen Cossus	Gens Cornelia
Costa	Costa		A rib	Gens Pedania
Cotta	Cotta			Gens Aurelia
Crassipes	Crassipes	SUGGESTED	Club-footed	Gens Furia
Crassus	Crassa	OVERUSED	Fat	Gentes Claudia, Licinia, Otacilia, Veturia
Crispinus	Crispina		Curly-haired
Crispus	Crispa		Curly-haired	Gentes Sallustia, Vibia
Culleo	Culleo	SUGGESTED	Leather sack for carrying liquid	Gens Terentia
Curio	Curio	SUGGESTED	Priest of a Curia	Gens Scribonia
Cursor	Cursor		Runner, courier	Gens Papiria
Curvus	Curva		Stooping, bent	Gens Fulvia
Dentatus	Dentata	SUGGESTED	Toothy
Denter	Dentra	SUGGESTED	Toothy	Gens Caecilia
Dento	Dento	SUGGESTED	Toothy
Dives	Dives		Rich, wealthy	Gens Licinia
Dolabella	Dolabella		Hatchet	Gens Cornelia
Dorsuo	Dorsuo	SUGGESTED	Large back	Gens Fabia
Drusus	Drusa			Gens Livia
Figulus	Figula	SUGGESTED	Potter
Fimbria	Fimbria		Edge of clothing, fringes	Gens Flavia
Flaccus	Flacca	SUGGESTED	Floppy ears	Gentes Aviania, Fulvia, Valeria
Flavus	Flava		Blonde-haired	Gens Decimia
Florus	Flora		Light-coloured or blooming	Gens Aquilia
Fronto	Fronto	SUGGESTED	Prominent forehead
Fullo	Fullo	SUGGESTED	A fuller or launderer	Gens Apustia
Fusus	Fusa		From archaic praenomen Fusus	Gens Furia
Galeo	Galeo		Helmet
Gemellus	Gemella		A twin	Gentes Servilia, Veturia
Glabrio	Glabrio		A relative of Glaber	Gens Acilia
Gracchus	Graccha			Gens Sempronia
Gurges	Gurges		Greedy, prodigal	Gens Fabia
Habitus	Habita		In good physical condition	Gens Cluentia
Helva	Helva	SUGGESTED	Dun-colored hair	Gens Aebutia
Imperiosus	Imperiosa	DISCOURAGED	Domineering, dictatorial	Gens Manlia
Iullus	Iulla		From archaic praenomen Iullus	Gens Iulia
Labeo	Labeo		Prominent lips	Gentes Antistia, Atinia, Fabia
Lactuca	Lactuca		Lettuce	Gens Valeria
Laenas	Laenas		A woolly cloak	Gens Popillia
Lanatus	Lanata		Wearing wool	Gens Menenia
Laevinus	Laevina
Laterensis	Laterensis		Person from the hill-side	Gens Iuventia
Lentulus	Lentula		A bit slow	Gens Cornelia
Lepidus	Lepida	OVERUSED	Charming, amusing	Gens Aemilia
Libo	Libo	SUGGESTED		Gens Marcia, Scribonia
Licinus	Licina	SUGGESTED	Spiky- or bristly-haired	Gens Mamilia
Longus	Longa	SUGGESTED	Tall	Gentes Sempronia, Sulpicia
Lucullus	Luculla		From lucus (grove) or Lucius (praenomen)	Gens Licinia
Lupus	Lupa	OVERUSED	Wolf	Gens Rutilia
Lurco	Lurco	SUGGESTED	Gluttonous, greedy
Macer	Macra	SUGGESTED	Thin	Gens Licinia
Macula	Macula	SUGGESTED	A spot or blemish
Malleolus	Malleola		Hammer	Gens Publicia
Mamercus	Mamerca		From rare praenomen Mamercus	Gens Aemilia
Marcellus	Marcella	OVERUSED	From praenomen Marcus	Gens Claudia
Maro	Maro	SUGGESTED		Gens Vergilia
Merenda	Merenda	SUGGESTED	Light afternoon meal	Gentes Antonia, Cornelia
Mergus	Merga	SUGGESTED	Sea-gull
Merula	Merula		Blackbird	Gens Cornelia
Messalla	Messalla			Gens Valeria
Metellus	Metella	OVERUSED	Army follower	Gens Caecilia
Murena	Murena		Eel	Gens Licinia
Mus	Mus	SUGGESTED	Mouse or rat	Gens Decia
Musca	Musca	SUGGESTED	Fly	Gens Sempronia
Nasica	Nasica		Big-nosed	Gens Sempronia
Naso	Naso	SUGGESTED	Big-nosed	Gens Ovidia
Natta	Natta	SUGGESTED	An artisan	Gens Pinaria
Nepos	Nepos		Grandchild	Gens Caecilia
Nero	Nero		From rare praenomen Nero ("strong")	Gens Claudia
Nerva	Nerva		Vigorous	Gens Cocceia, Licinia
Niger	Nigra	SUGGESTED	Black-skinned or black-haired
Novellus	Novella		New, new-fangled	Gens Gavilia
Ocella	Ocella	SUGGESTED	Small-eyed	Gens Livia
Pacilus	Pacila	SUGGESTED	From archaic praenomen Pacilus	Gens Furia
Paetus	Paeta	SUGGESTED	Squinty or blinking	Gens Aelia
Pansa	Pansa	SUGGESTED	Splay-footed	Gens Vibia
Papus	Papa	SUGGESTED	From rare praenomen Papus	Gens Aemilia
Paterculus	Patercula	SUGGESTED	Little father	Gens Sulpicia
Paullus	Paulla		Small	Gens Aemilia
Pavo	Pavo		Peacock
Pera	Pera	SUGGESTED	Shoulder-bag	Gens Iunia
Pictor	Pictrix		Painter	Gens Fabia
Piso	Piso		Mortar	Gens Calpurnia
Plancus	Planca		Flat-footed	Gens Munatia
Plautus	Plauta	SUGGESTED	Flat-footed
Poplicola	Poplicola		Friend of the people	Gens Valeria
Postumus	Postuma		Born after the father's death	Gens Curtia
Potitus	Potita		Probably derived from an archaic praenomen	Gens Valeria
Praeconinus	Praeconina	SUGGESTED	A relative of a herald
Praetextatus	Praetextata		Young (wearing the toga praetexta)	Gens Sulpicia
Priscus	Prisca		Very ancient
Proculus	Procula		From rare praenomen Proculus, perhaps meaning "born during father's absence"	Gens Plautia
Publicola	Publicola		Variant of Poplicola	Gens Valeria
Pulcher	Pulchra		Attractive	Gens Claudia
Pullus	Pulla	SUGGESTED	Child
Pulvillus	Pulvilla	SUGGESTED	Small cushion	Gens Horatia
Purpureo	Purpureo	SUGGESTED	Wearing purple or with a purplish complexion
Quadratus	Quadrata		Stocky, squarely built
Ralla	Ralla	SUGGESTED	A tunic of fine fabric	Gens Marcia
Regillus	Regilla		Prince	Gens Aemilia
Regulus	Regula	OVERUSED	Prince	Gens Atilia
Rufus	Rufa		Reddish, Ginger-haired
Ruga	Ruga	SUGGESTED	Wrinkly
Rullus	Rulla	SUGGESTED	Uncultivated, boorish	Gens Servilia
Rutilus	Rutila		Reddish-gold hair
Salinator	Salinatrix		Salt-harvester	Gens Livia
Saturninus	Saturnina		Dedicated to Saturnus
Scaeva	Scaeva		Left-handed	Gens Iunia, Marcia
Scaevola	Scaevola		Left-handed	Gens Mucia
Scapula	Scapula	SUGGESTED	Shoulder-blade	Gens Quinctia
Scaurus	Scaura		Lame, swollen-ankled	Gentes Aemilia, Aurelia
Scipio	Scipio	DISCOURAGED	Rod, staff	Gens Cornelii
Scrofa	Scrofa	SUGGESTED	Sow	Gens Tremelia
Seneca	Seneca		Elderly	Gens Annaea
Severus	Severa	OVERUSED	Strict, severe
Silanus	Silana		Nose, water-spout	Gens Iunia
Silo	Silo	SUGGESTED	Snub-nosed	Gens Sergia
Silus	Sila	SUGGESTED	Snub-nosed	Gens Sergia
Stolo	Stolo	SUGGESTED	Shoot of a plant	Gens Licinia
Strabo	Strabo		Squinty	Gens Titia
Structus	Structa		Possibly derived from an archaic praenomen	Gens Servilia
Sulla	Sulla	DISCOURAGED		Gens Cornelia
Sura	Sura	SUGGESTED	Calf of the leg
Taurus	Taura		Bull
Triarius	Triaria	OVERUSED	A type of soldier	Gens Valeria
Trigeminus	Trigemina		A triplet	Gens Curiatia
Trio	Trio	SUGGESTED	One of the seven stars of the Plough / Big Dipper	Gens Lucretia
Tubero	Tubero	SUGGESTED	Having a tumour or swelling	Gens Aelia, Iulia
Tubertus	Tuberta	SUGGESTED	Having a tumour or swelling	Gens Postumia
Tubulus	Tubula	SUGGESTED	Little tube	Gens Hostilia
Tuditanus	Tuditana	SUGGESTED	Mallet	Gens Sempronia
Tullus	Tulla		From rare praenomen Tullus	Gens Volcatia
Turdus	Turda	SUGGESTED	Thrush	Gens Papiria
Varro	Varro		Block-head	Gens Terentia
Varus	Vara		Bow-legged	Gentes Atilia, Licinia, Quinctilia
Vatia	Vatia		Knock-kneed	Gens Servilia
Verres	Verres		Pig	Gens Cornelia
Vespillo	Vespillo		Person employed to bury people too poor for a funeral	Gens Lucretia
Vetus	Vetus		Old	Gens Antistia
Vitulus	Vitula		Calf or young cow	Gentes Mamilia, Pomponia
Volusus	Volusa		From rare praenomen Volusus	Gens Valeria

Geographical Cognomina

Some people have cognomina which refer to the place where they come from, whether a city (e.g. Collatinus, "man from Collatia"), a region (e.g. Campanus, "man from Campania"), or a tribe (e.g. Sabinus, "man of the Sabines"). Names referring to whole countries or provinces (e.g. Hispanus, "man from Hispania") are not normally allowed because they are not distinctive enough: if everyone in Hispania were called Hispanus, it would be very confusing! But such names may be appropriate if you live away from your native country (e.g. a citizen from Hispania living in America might be called Hispanus).

These geographical cognomina should be distinguished from honorific cognomina like Germanicus or Britannicus. These names do not refer to a place of origin but to a military achievement. If someone is called Britannicus it does not mean he is from Britain, it means he won a great victory against the Britons. Names like this are not allowed, for obvious reasons.

If you would like to use a geographical cognomen, the Censores will work with you to find an appropriate one.

Occupational Cognomina

Another type of cognomen in ancient times was one which referred to the person's job or occupation (e.g. Pictor, "painter"; Caprarius, "goat-herd"). If you would like to use an occupational cognomen, the Censores will work with you to find an appropriate one.

Latinising your own name

Often when a foreigner became a Roman citizen in ancient times he would keep his old name as a cognomen, adjusting it to make it easier for Latin-speakers to say and giving it a Latin ending. This is also a common option in Nova Roma.

If you choose this option, you can use either your first name or your surname, or both. If you use both, they will be put in reverse order. For example, Robert Grant would take the cognomina Grandis Robertus. This is because in a Roman name the second cognomen is more individual than the first.

If you would like to use a Latin form of your own name, the Censores will work with you to find the appropriate form. Here are the Latin forms of some common names:

The Table of Latinised Names is under revision.

Other Latin Words

Many ordinary Latin nouns and adjectives can be used as cognomina. If there is some particular Latin word you would like to use as a cognomen, or if you would like a cognomen with a particular meaning, the Censores will work with you to find an appropriate name.

Multiple Cognomina

In some cases it may be appropriate to have more than one cognomen. This is normally only allowed where you use a Latinised form of your own name, but may also be appropriate if you are joining a family which contains a large number of people who all have the same nomen and cognomen. If you think you have a good reason to want more than one cognomen, the Censores will discuss it with you.

Special Cognomina

There are several types of cognomen which serve a particular purpose and which are therefore not available for new citizens.

Adoptive Cognomina

When a Roman citizen is adopted by another, he takes the name of his adoptive father, but adds a special cognomen to indicate his former identity. This cognomen is formed from his old nomen, with the -ius ending replaced with an -ianus ending.

For example, when L. Aemilius Paullus was adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio he became P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus.

Matronymic Cognomina

In very rare cases a Roman might use an extra cognomen formed from his mother's nomen. The -ia ending was replaced with an -ianus ending or an -inus ending.

For example, M. Porcius Cato had one son by his first wife Licinia, and another son by his second wife Salonia. Each son was called M. Porcius Cato. To tell them apart, people called them M. Porcius Cato Licinianus and M. Porcius Cato Salonianus.

Agnomina

Sometimes very eminent Romans were given honorific cognomina in recognition of their great achievements. These were the exception to the general rule that cognomina were not complimentary. Such honorific cognomina are called agnomina. Obviously a person cannot give himself an agnomen: it is always given by others.

An agnomen may refer to a victory over a particular enemy people (e.g. Britannicus, "victor over the Britons") or in a particular place (e.g. Africanus, "victor in Africa"), a particular virtue (e.g. Pius, "dutiful"; Sapiens, "prudent"), or general preeminence (e.g. Magnus, "great"; Maximus, "very great").

Other Elements

Although the tria nomina are the core of a Roman name, there are times when a Roman might include other elements in his name. These are not really part of his name as such but are additional pieces of information about him and his place in the community.

Filiation

After a person's nomen and before his cognomen a Roman may include the praenomen of his father and, sometimes, his father's father. This is done in the following way:

M. Tullius M. f. M. n. Cicero

This means "Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepos Cicero", or "Marcus Tullius, son of Marcus, grandson of Marcus, Cicero".

Tribe

Every Roman citizen is a member of a tribe. These are not ethnic groups but social units, communities within the community, and voting-blocks. A Roman is born into his father's tribe. There are thirty-five tribes, each with a standard abbreviation:

The tribe is inserted between the nomen and the cognomen, e.g. M. Tullius Cor. Cicero (meaning "Marcus Tullius Cornelia tribu Cicero", or "Marcus Tullius, of the Cornelian tribe, Cicero").

Often the tribe is included together with the filiation, in which case it appears after the filiation and before the cognomen, thus:

M. Tullius M. f. M. n. Cor. Cicero

Usage

This section contains general guidance on how to use Roman names. It must be stressed that these are not firm legalistic rules. A name is a device which allows one person to talk about another person so that everyone knows who he is talking about. Any rule which makes it unclear who is being referred to would be self-defeating, and all the general rules explained below should be ignored if following them would lead to confusion.

How Many Names?

As a general rule, the more formal the context, the more names are used. The use of all three (or more) names is very formal, and should be rare. Calling someone M. Tullius Cicero is roughly equivalent to calling someone Mr Robert James Grant, Esquire.

Two names are normally enough to make it clear who you are talking to or about. Using two names is formal and polite. Calling someone M. Tullius is roughly equivalent to calling someone Robert Grant or Mr Grant. When you mention someone for the first time in a speech or a letter, or when greeting someone, it is common to use two names.

Use of one name is relatively relaxed and informal. If you already in the middle of a conversation with someone, or in the middle of talking about someone, you might well call him by just one name, especially if you know him reasonably well. Calling someone Cicero is roughly equivalent to calling someone Robert. But in formal situations or when first mentioning someone, using only one name may be over-familiar and could be impolite.

Which Names?

Which names you call someone by depends partly on how many names you are using.

Two Names

When calling someone by two names, which names you use depends on the status of the person you're naming. If the person is a nobilis, it is proper to call him by his praenomen and cognomen, e.g. P. Scipio. If he is a novus homo, one would normally call him by his praenomen and nomen, e.g. M. Tullius. Most people in Nova Roma are novi homines, so most people are normally called by their praenomen and nomen. If you accidentally call a nobilis as if he were a novus homo, he will probably not take offence, especially if you apologise for your mistake; but if in doubt, you can always ask.

One may, of course, flatter or praise a novus homo by naming him with his praenomen and cognomen as if he were a nobilis; but you should not do this too often, especially as it could cause resentment among the true nobiles.

Some people adopt a style which was fashionable in the last generation of the ancient republic and call everyone, both nobilis and novus homo, by nomen and cognomen, e.g. Cornelius Scipio, Tullius Cicero. There is nothing strictly wrong with this, but it is not characteristic of the ancient republic and is not encouraged.

One Name

When calling someone by only one name, it is normal and polite to use the cognomen. A nobilis should always be called by his cognomen. A novus homo can be called by his nomen: this is not strictly impolite, but it is at best neutral and may also make it unclear who you are talking about.

Where a person has more than one cognomen, you should normally use the first one. Calling someone by his agnomen, if he has one, is of course particularly complimentary. You should only call someone by his adoptive if you want to draw attention to his pre-adoption family and identity: this is not necessarily polite or impolite, but will depend on the context. Similarly caling someone by his matronymic cognomen will draw attention to his mother's identity and family.

Do not fall into the trap of calling someone routinely by his adoptive cognomen. This is often tempting, because it is an easy way of distinguishing between the adopted child and the adoptive father, but it is an un-Roman habit. To a Roman, an adopted child became, to all intents and purposes, the child of the adoptive parents, and one should normally ignore his adoptive cognomen when naming him.

Praenomen Only

The praenomen is essentially a private name, for use within the family. You should not call a Roman by just his praenomen unless he is your close relative or very, very close friend. Even spouses do not generally call each other by their praenomina alone - they generally use nomina or cognomina.

Latin Vocatives

When you call someone by name, you change the ending of the name to indicate that you are talking to the person, not about him. As a general rule, names ending in -us take an ending -e (e.g. Brutus -> Brute), though names ending in -ius turn to -i (e.g. Tullius -> Tulli). Names ending in -a do not usually change. Names with other endings do not usually change.

You may notice some people using vocative endings when they are talking about someone in the third person (e.g. "I was talking to Brute yesterday"). Don't be confused - you are right, they are wrong.

Addresses Other Than Names

Much more than in some modern societies, Romans address each other using labels other than names, or combine names with other terms. What follows is a very brief overview.

Dominus & Domina

Some modern Latin-speakers use "dominus" and "domina" as equivalents of English "Mr" and "Miss" or "Mrs". This is strongly discouraged. "Dominus" means "lord" or "master", and addressing someone in this way is very servile and grovelling.

An exception is that lovers sometimes call each other "dominus" and "domina", though usually only in the bedroom.

Titles

Though Romans do not generally go in for titles in a big way, it is not uncommon to call a Consul by the title "Consul", for example, especially when speaking in a political context or discussing business relevant to the office. Likewise one may call one's patron by the title "patronus". But titles are not by any means compulsory, and there is nothing at all rude in calling a magistrate straightforwardly by his name.

Relatives

As well as calling each other by name, relatives commonly talk to or about each other by reference to their relationship, e.g. pater (father), soror (sister), patruus (uncle), &c. These terms are often combined with terms of endearment (see below). As noted above, close relatives might call each other by their praenomina.

Spouses and Lovers

As was mentioned above, spouses and lovers generally call each other by cognomen rather than praenomen. Occasionally they called each other vir (husband) and uxor (wife), but more commonly they used terms of endearment (see below).

Friends and Acquaintances

Most of the time people who know each other but are not especially close call each other by name, sometimes with "mi" (see below). Sometimes they will use brief descriptions, e.g. iuvenis (young man), amicus (friend), senex (old man). Depending on the relationship between the people concerned, they may use terms of endearment or even insults.

Strangers

There is no direct Roman equivalent of "sir" or "madam". If you meet someone whose name you don't know, it is normal and not at all rude to say something like "petasate" ("you with the hat") or "senex" ("old man") or "viator" ("traveller"). Very often one might say "quiquis es" ("whoever you are").

Generally, though, unless you are merely asking the time of day, the best tactic is to try to find out the person's name by saying something like "adulescens, dic mihi nomen tuum, quaeso" ("young man, please tell me your name") or "o qui vocaris?" ("O how are you called?").

Terms of Endearment and Esteem

Romans have always been very inventive with terms of endearment. One very common one is "carissimus", often combined with a name, e.g. "salve Brute carissime" ("hello my dear Brutus"), "salve soror carissima" ("hello dear sister"). Others include "dulcis" ("sweet"), "inclitus" ("famous"), "magnus" ("great"), "optimus" ("excellent"), "fortissimus" ("very strong"). This should be enough to give you the general idea.

"Mi" and "O"

"Mi" (masculine) and "mea" (feminine) mean "my". They are very commonly attached to names or other terms of endearment in conversations between friends or well-meaning acquaintances, e.g. "salve mi frater" ("hello my brother"), "salve mea Cornelia" ("hello my Cornelia"). It is especially common in letters, not so much in oral conversation.

"O" is also not uncommon. It has the general effect of making an address to someone more emotional, emphatic, or poetic. E.g. "o optime Brute" ("O excellent Brutus").