Minerva

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'''Minerva''', Goddess of wisdom and learning, meditation, inventiveness, accomplishments, the arts, spinning and weaving, and commerce. ''Minerva'' was identified with ''Pallas Athene'', bestower of victory, when Pompey the Great built her temple with the proceeds from his eastern campaigns. ''Minerva'' and ''[[Mars]]'' are honored Quinquatras, five days at the Spring equinox.
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{{LanguageBar|Minerva}}
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[[Image:Minerva courtesy of Vroma.jpg|right|frame]]
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[[Category:Roman religion]]
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[[Category:Roman Gods]]
  
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''Minerva'' has many aspects, attributes, names and epithets.
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''This article was written by [[Decimus Aurelius Ingeniarius (Nova Roma)|D. Aurelius]], camillus, and should not be modified or copied without permission.''
  
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'''Minerva: the Goddess of a Thousand Works''' (Ovidus Fasti III)
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_1.jpg|right|thumb|500px|A depiction of Minerva by the artist Joseph Nollekens (1737-1823) on display at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, United States.<ref>Getty Museum Collection, ‘Minerva’, accessed 28 April 24,  https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/103RRE#full-artwork-details</ref>]]
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== Introduction and Origins ==
  
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The Roman goddess '''Minerva''', is an Italian goddess with patronage over a large domain. She is the patroness for arts and handicrafts<ref>Hammond, N and Scullard, H. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 689.</ref>, and has distinct associations with wisdom and commerce. In spite of her martial-like depictions and guardianship of military prowess and victory, she was also a goddess striving for peace. In addition, she also leads in the sphere of education and study, often looked to by students and academics.<ref>Nicolae, M, The Capitoline Triad In Roman Dacia, Peuce S.N. IX, 2011, p. 294.</ref>Schools were under her particular care, and attending school boys in ancient Rome would have holidays during her festivals. They would often bring a gift to their master, called a “Minerval”.<ref>Belton, J, An Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology, 2009, p. 180</ref>
  
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“O Minerva, You have always come to my aid with Your counsels, witness to the existence of my works”
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20th century sources believe that Minerva is, in fact a syncretized adaption of the Greek goddess Athena, borrowed through the times of early Eturia. However, many sources find Minerva to be a native Latin goddess with her name derived from the root of the word ''memini'' among others. Despite her native origins, very little traces of her cult exist before the introduction of the “Capitoline Triad”.<ref>Hammond, N and Scullard, H. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 689.</ref>As mentioned by the poet Ennius in the third century BCE, Minerva was one of twelve gods worshipped through the Roman Republic, as part of a group known as the ''Dii Consentes'' or ''Dii Complices''; a great assembly of the gods. The head of this assembly was the Capitoline Triad.<ref>Nicolae, M, The Capitoline Triad In Roman Dacia, p. 292.</ref> 
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Cicero De Domo sua ad Pontifices 144
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The Capitoline Triad, consists of the deities of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. This wasn’t always the case as records from pontifical books suggest that this triad displaced a more ancient triad of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. King Numa, an early king of Rome, had created the three ''flamines'' (leading priests) for this earlier triad that served as the leading gods of Rome and may have been the recipients of the spoils of victory in Rome’s early years<ref>Mary Beard, John North and Simon Price, ‘Religions of Rome, Volume 2 A Sourcebook’ (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 6.</ref>. It is first noted that the more recent Capitoline triad with Minerva came to preeminence during the late regal period of Rome during the height of Etruscan influence.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 24.</ref>Despite the early inconsistencies of Minerva in this triad, several early traces identify her origins beginning with the early assimilation between Athena and the Etruscan Menerva, seen on a relief which decorated the column of a “Temple A” from Pyrgi, dated 480 BCE, on which the Etruscan deity takes part at an episode of the Theban legend. There are further appearances on found Etruscan mirrors which present the Greek theme of the Athena/Menerva birth from the head of Greek Zeus/ Etruscan Tinia, or in the company of Herakles, thus being possible to identify Minerva from King Tarquin’s time.<ref>Nicolae, M, The Capitoline Triad In Roman Dacia, p. 292.</ref>
  
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Minerva is wisdom, She is a goddess of many attributes, She is the guardian of life, preserving the intellectual and spiritual principle through Her protective power and under the providence of divine intelligence.
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The image of Athena had a major impact upon the iconography and depiction of the Roman Minerva. There is almost no information available regarding the image of Minerva prior to her visual assimilation with Athena. Although they are identical in terms of appearance, they remained distinctive goddesses within their own pantheon. Despite these similarities, there is almost no information regarding the beginnings of Minerva’s cult in Rome she had no festival in the ''Feriale Duranum'' and no ''flamines'' were ascribed to her cult.<ref>Ibid, p. 299.</ref>
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We have come to know Minerva as having shared characteristics with the Greek Athena, including Her parentage. Minerva’s father was thought to be Pallas the Giant (although Pallas could be a variety of mentors or figures) or the daughter of Metis and Iuppiter (Tinia) springing from His head, reminiscent of Athena; tales of how She came to be are many and varied.[1] 
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Some scholars believe She, Menrva, came from Falerii, now known as Civita Castellana, then a small hamlet on the right side of the Tiber. There She was worshipped as the protectress of handicraft and also of the working man, a very important aspect to the Ancient Roman people. The Etruscans brought this Goddess to Rome as part of the Capitoline Triad of Iuppiter, Iuno and Minerva.  
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Under the reign of the last King of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, a Temple was constructed to rever them on Capitoline Hill; Aedes Iovis Optimi Maximi Capitolini. There were three separate chambers for these most important Deities; Iuno Regina on the Left, Iuppiter in the center and Minerva on the right. This was the second Capitoline Triad, the first predated the Roman Republic and came to be known as the Archaic Triad of Iuppiter, Mars and Quirinus. Tuscan craftsmen built the magnificent Etruscan Temple of Minerva and to honor them the area where they lived, at the foot of the Capitoline, was named for them in perpetuity; the Vicus Tuscus.[2,3] 
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== Festivals & Sacrifices ==
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_2.jpg|left|thumb|500px|The 'Minerva of Arezzo' is a bronze Etruscan statue dating to the 3rd-2nd century BCE. On display at the Etruscan Archaeological Museum of Florence.<ref>World History Encyclopedia, ‘Minerva of Arezzo’, accessed 28 April 24,https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2270/minerva-of-arezzo/.</ref>]]
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The primary celebration of Minerva is the Quinquatria in March. The name comes from the timing of the event as it coincides with the fifth day after the ides. The event celebrated the anniversary of the temple of Minerva on the Aventine but also extended to include that of Minerva Medica on the Esquiline.<ref>Robert Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000), 67.</ref>
  
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Minerva is not just a symbol of divine intellect but She gifts humans who seek Her guidance and induces meditations of intellectual illumination; wisdom.
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Commencing on the 19th March, the ''Quinquatria'' (or ''Quinquatrus'') may have originally been only a single day celebration, according to Varro and Festus. Ovid suggested that it lasted five days and therefore the celebration was afforded its namesake. It may have taken on an additional four days, likely around the time of Julius Caesar, to gratify the people. Ovid suggested that the fifth day of the festival, on March 23, saw the Roman trumpets, used in sacred rites, undergo purification rituals. This purification was more likely to be a separate event known as the ''Tubilustrium'', which hence started the same time as the last day of the ''Quinquatria''.<ref>Bill Thayer, Quinquatrus or Quinquatria, ‘LacusCurtius: Into the Roman World’, last modified December 17,  2006, accessed March 10, 2024, https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Quinquatrus.html</ref>
  
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The ''Quinquatria'' celebrated arts and trades including those various professions connected with health. It was marked by days of sacrifices and competitions like gladiatorial games.<ref>Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 67.</ref>It became important that on the first day, no blood was shed, so events like the gladiatorial games would commence on the following three or four days. Women would take to consulting fortune-tellers and diviners during this time<ref>Thayer, Quinquatrus or Quinquatria.</ref>, and may have created textile masterpieces in dedication to the divine patroness which is depicted in activities seen on the frieze of Nerva’s forum.<ref>Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 67.</ref>Records show a procession was often held for the occasion at which the treasured Palladium statue, which had allegedly fallen from Olympus, was stated to be carried.<ref>Jordan, M, Dictionary of Gods and Goddess, (Facts on File New York, 2004), p. 200.</ref>
  
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“Come now, golden haired Minerva, to favor the task I've begun”
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Ovid makes references that coincide with another smaller festival of Minerva, called the ''Quinquatrus Minusculae'' or ''Quinquatrus Minores'' (Little Quinquatria), that was celebrated on the Ides of June (13th).<ref>Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 74.</ref>A contingent of flute players, the ''tibicines''<ref>Thayer, Quinquatrus or Quinquatria</ref>, are said to have wandered the streets often masked, drunk and often disguised as women. They would play and finish with a finale in front of the temple of Minerva. According to Turcan (2000), this was likely the temple on the Esquiline, as it is stated the precession would meet again six days later on the 19th at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.<ref>Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 74.</ref> 
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Ovidus Fasti 6.652
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Seneca writes about other Capitol rituals that would occur. He noted how, along with Juno, Minerva is said to have had dedicated female hairdressers who would gather and move their fingers around in the way a hairdresser would, as if pampering the goddess. Operating some distance from the temple, they were often accompanied by others holding up mirrors.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 234.</ref>
  
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She is a God of the people, revered by patricians and plebians alike, Her sense of fairness and equity endears Her to those who talents, rather than birth, set them apart from others.
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As one of the chief gods of the state, many public rituals would often be held in front of the temple of the Capitoline Triad. Citizens would often assemble to observe their magistrates and priests address the gods. One of the very first acts of newly elected consuls was to make a sacrifice and offer prayers at this temple.<ref>Frances Hahn, “Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns”, in A Companion to Roman Religion, ed. Jörg Rüpke (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007), 238.</ref> 
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Minerva’s Temple on the Aventine in the 3rd century was host to the collegium of scribae and histriones who were dramatic authors and actors and where their archives were held. As a result of this an entire community of poets, including Ennius, took up residency on the Aventine, the traditional home of the plebs, close to Her Temple.[4]  In Mid March plebian festivals were celebrated at the sanctuary of Minerva. These were guild festivals held during the Quinquatrus (March 19-26) to celebrate the anniversary of the consecration of Her Temple on the Aventine and included all the arts and trades sacred to Minerva: sculptors, painters, physician, teachers, weavers, fullers, dyers and cobblers.[5]  The Temple of Minerva Medica on the Esquiline also was very much of the celebration with four days of sacrifices and competitions, mostly gladiatorial. Outstanding teachers were rewarded with the title “minerval” which is still continued today in various societies. [6,7] 
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The college of the ''epulones'', which was made up of the septemviri epulones (although the number of priests numbered ten under the late Republic), had the duty to feed (''epulari'') the Capitoline Triad deities. Minerva, along with Jupiter and Juno would be fed in a feast, to which senators would also be invited. This was reported to be done originally as part of the Plebeian Games but would become a feature activity into the imperial era with other hosted games.<ref>Robert Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000), 55.</ref>
  
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"After a one day interval, the rites of Minerva are performed, which take their name from the sequence of five days. The first day is bloodless, and sword fights are unlawful, because Minerva was born on that very day. The next four are celebrated with gladiatorial shows, the warlike goddess delights in naked swords. Pray now you boys and tender girls to Pallas: he who can truly please Pallas, is learned. Pleasing Pallas let girls learn to card wool, and how to unwind the full distaff. She shows how to draw the shuttle through the firm Warp, and close up loose threads with the comb. Worship her, you who remove stains from damaged clothes, Worship her, you who ready bronze cauldrons for fleeces. If Pallas frowns, no one could make good shoes, Even if he were more skilled than Tychius: and even if he were cleverer with his hands Than Epeus once was, he'll be useless if Pallas is angry. You too who drive away ills with Apollo's art, bring a few gifts of your own for the goddess: and don't scorn her, you schoolmasters, a tribe so often cheated of its pay: she attracts new pupils: nor you engravers, and painters with encaustics, nor you who carve the stone with a skilful hand. She's the goddess of a thousand things: and song for sure: If I'm worthy may she be a friend to my endeavors. Where the Caelian Hill slopes down to the plain, at the point where the street's almost, but not quite, level, you can see the little shrine of Minerva Capta, which the Goddess first occupied on Her birthday. The source of the name is doubtful: we speak of `Capital' ingenuity: the goddess is herself ingenious. Or is it because, motherless, she leapt, with a shield from the crown of her father's head (caput)? Or because she came to us as a `captive' from the conquest Of Falerii? This, an ancient inscription claims. Or because her law ordains `capital' punishment for receiving things stolen from that place? By whatever logic your title's derived, Pallas, Shield our leaders with your aegis forever."
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== Temples and Shrines ==
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Ovidus, Fasti III; 809-848
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_3.png|right|thumb|500px|A façade of from the Roman temple at Bath, depicting the identifiable shield of Minerva with influences of either Sulis or another hybrid depiction.<ref>Odyssey – Ancient History Network, The Complete History Of the Roman Empire.</ref>]]
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_4.jpg|right|thumb|400px|“Minerva Conservas” is a food brand in Portugal. Since its founding in 1942, Minerva has been known for its canned fish products, made with fresh, hand-selected fish from the Portuguese coast.<ref>Poveira, Minerva Preserves, accessed 16 April 2024, https://www.apoveira.pt/conservas-peixe/conservas-minerva/</ref>Image curtesy of [[Decimus Aurelius Ingeniarius (Nova Roma)|D. Aurelius]].]]
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_7.jpg|left|thumb|400px|Minerva depicted on top of the Mechanics’ Institute building in the town of Ballaarat, Australia. This foundation is dedicated to arts, culture and literature in the region.<ref>Ballaarat Mechanics' Institute, ‘About Us’, accessed 28 April 24, https://ballaratmi.org.au/about-us/.</ref>Image curtesy of [[Decimus Aurelius Ingeniarius (Nova Roma)|D. Aurelius]].]]
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_5.jpg|right|thumb|400px|The Minerva brand sewing machine. Image curtesy of the Sew What Maryborough – Sewing Machine Museum Victoria, Australia.<ref>Minerva, History, accessed 16 April 2024, https://www.minerva-boskovice.com/company/history.</ref>]]
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[[Image:Minerva_Article_Image_6.jpg|right|thumb|400px|References of Minerva are often depicted in video games. Minerva is seen here as a segment of artificial intelligence in the game “Horizon: Zero Dawn” developed by Guerrilla Games in 2017.<ref>FANDOM Games, MINERVA, accessed 16 April 2024, https://horizon.fandom.com/wiki/MINERVA.</ref>Image curtesy of [[Decimus Aurelius Ingeniarius (Nova Roma)|D. Aurelius]].]]
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During the early Republic, the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was also jointly dedicated to Juno and Minerva. Before the later Republican era of Rome, this temple was of a far greater scale than had been seen in earlier temples. It was Etruscan in design, likely to pay homage to the late regal rulers at the time it was built. However, Republican rhetoric would suggest that although built by the kings of Rome, it was first dedicated in 509 B.C.E by the first consuls of the newly minted Roman Republic.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 24.</ref> 
  
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It became customary to build “triple-temples“ (Capitolium) to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva of the state triad through various Coloniae, even through to the empire period as well. Such temples include: the Capitolium at Cosa in Etriria founded in 273 B.C.E. and the Capitolium at Sufetula in Africa founded in the second century C.E.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 245.</ref> 
  
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In the Eleusinian mysteries it is Minerva herself who preserves the very heart of Bacchus protecting the freedoms He represents and also His mysteries which gifts his cultores with possession and empowerment directly by the God’s divine self. Although this article is about Minerva I mention Bacchus and the mysteries (incl. Orphic) because She is inextricably tied to Bacchus as His birth, the rising sun, is the rising of intellectual light and its manifestations and therefore under her dominion. Her connection with Bacchus is thusly immortalized in the following poem:
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A key cult temple lay on the Aventine, although it is uncertain when it was established. Most likely built around 263 or 262 BCE.<ref>Madden, A, Ancient Gods, (London: Future Publishing 2022), p. 76</ref>This temple to Minerva became the headquarters of a guild of writers and actors, most prominent during the Second Punic War. Minerva was also worshipped at a smaller shrine on Mons Caelius (Caelian Hill) under the name Minerva Capta. This site was said to be erected after the taking of Falerii in the revolt against the Republic in 241 BCE.<ref>Hammond, N and Scullard, H. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 689.</ref>Colloquially, this shrine became known as the “Minervium” during the Republic. Identified in sources, likely a shortening of original expression “templum minervium”.<ref>Cinaglia, T, ‘Minervium vs. Minerva Capta: due facce della stessa medaglia?’, en
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Ἰlu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones 21, p. 54.</ref> 
  
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Minerva is found to be one the oldest cults in Pompeii, with the temple there likely built in the early part of the 6th century BCE. The temple likely served as a physical landmark on the edge of the Pompeian lava plateau, with vast views over the entire Sarno valley and the sea. Evidence shows it underwent renovations sometime in the late 4th century BCE where it received a new roof feature depicting Hercules and Athena/Minerva Phrygia.<ref>Graff, I. and Ellis, J, Minerva, urban defenses, and the continuity of cult at Pompeii, Journal of Roman Archaeology 30 (2017), p. 293.</ref> 
  
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“To Minerva” by Proclus (3rd Century C.E.)
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Other temples were dedicated to Minerva throughout Roman history. Pompey is said to have dedicated one in the later Republican era, funded from the spoils of war.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 1.’, 122.</ref>The location of this temple is not known to history but some hypotheses believed it to have been located at the foot of the Pincian Hill. More likely, it is one of two known temple locations located along the triumphal path, consistent with other monuments promoted by Pompey. One of these temples is mentioned in the Cataloghi Regionari and is outside the Porta Capena with other triumphal monuments. The other location could be the temple in the area between the Forum and the Velabrum.<ref>Eleonora Zampieri, “Pompey, Minerva and Rome’s Presence in the Near East”, Hermes 148 (March 2020): 326.</ref>Emperor Vespasian is another example to have dedicated new temples to Minerva, alongside the cult of Pax and Domitian.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 1.’, 253.</ref>Emperor Domitian, claiming the goddess was protecting him, dedicated a temple in her name in the Nerva Forum.<ref>Madden, Ancient Gods, p. 76.</ref>     
  
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“Daughter of ægis-bearing Jove, divine,
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== Variations of Minerva ==
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Propitious to thy votaries’ prayer incline;
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From thy great father’s fount supremely bright,
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Like fire resounding, leaping into light.
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Shield-bearing goddess, hear, to whom belong
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A manly mind, and power to tame the strong!
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Oh, sprung from matchless might, with joyful mind
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Accept this hymn; benevolent and kind!
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The holy gates of wisdom, by thy hand
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Are wide unfolded; and the daring band
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Of earth-born giants, that in impious fight
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Strove with thy fire, were vanquished by thy might.
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Once by thy care, as sacred poets sing,
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The heart of Bacchus, swiftly-slaughtered king,
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Was sav’d in Æther, when, with fury fired,
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The Titans fell against his life conspired;
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And with relentless rage and thirst for gore,
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Their hands his members into fragments tore:
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But ever watchful of thy father’s will,
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Thy power preserv’d him from succeeding ill,
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Till from the secret counsels of his fire,
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And born from Semelé through heavenly sire,
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Great Dionysus to the world at length
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Again appeared with renovated strength.
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Once, too, thy warlike ax, with matchless sway,
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Lopped from their savage necks the heads away
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Of furious beasts, and thus the pests destroyed
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Which long all-seeing Hecaté annoyed.
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By thee benevolent great Juno’s might
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Was roused, to furnish mortals with delight.
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And thro’ life’s wide and various range, ’t is thine
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Each part to beautify with art divine:
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Invigorated hence by thee, we find
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A demiurgic impulse in the mind.
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Towers proudly raised, and for protection strong,
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To thee, dread guardian deity, belong,
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As proper symbols of th’ exalted height
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Thy series claims amidst the courts of light.
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Lands are beloved by thee, to learning prone,
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And Athens, Oh Athena, is thy own!
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Great goddess, hear! and on my dark’ned mind
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Pour thy pure light in measure unconfined;—
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That sacred light, Oh all-protecting queen,
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Which beams eternal from thy face serene.
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My soul, while wand’ring on the earth, inspire
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With thy own blessed and impulsive fire:
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And from thy fables, mystic and divine,
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Give all her powers with holy light to shine.
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Give love, give wisdom, and a power to love,
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Incessant tending to the realms above;
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Such as unconscious of base earth’s control
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Gently attracts the vice-subduing soul:
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From night’s dark region aids her to retire,
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And once more gain the palace of her sire.
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O all-propitious to my prayer incline!
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Nor let those horrid punishments be mine
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Which guilty souls in Tartarus confine,
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With fetters fast’ned to its brazen floors,
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And lock’d by hell’s tremendous iron doors.
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Hear me, and save (for power is all thine own)
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A soul desirous to be thine alone.”
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Julius Caesar reported on the Gallic worship of gods that he described as if they were the same as Roman gods. Although the extant Gallic equivalent is not known today, the Gallic Minerva is also said to bestow the principles of arts and crafts.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 55.</ref> 
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Isiac hymns, preserved on inscriptions by the followers of the cult of Isis, suggest that Minerva was in fact, a form of the Egyptian cult figure, Isis, worshipped under another name. This also included the deities of Venus and Magna Mater too.<ref>Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 1.’, 281.</ref> 
  
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We see the connection of Bacchus and Minerva again in the celebration of the elderly Goddess, Anna Perenna on March 15th. Mars became enamored of the virgin Minerva’s beauty and asked Anna Perenna to intercede on his behalf, like most ancient tales it took an unexpected turn. Anna Perenna disguised Herself as Minerva on the wedding day but Mars found out just in time and the wedding never happened.[8]  Anna Perenna is a Goddess of “the turning of the years” or circle of life and also as a fertility procuring entity. Because of these attributes the festival of the fertility god Liber Pater, later equated with Bacchus, included a remembrance of Anna Perenna as elderly women donning ivy crowns offered sacrifice to the fertility god and through these venerable women the requests of their younger counterparts for children was channeled.[9,10,11]   
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“Minerva Phrygia” has been evaluated as a pro-Roman cult with a Trojan connection associated with the wider series of foundation myths and Greek identity in the Magna Graecia and Sicily regions. Minerva’s appellative Phrygia (and hence her Trojan background) results from her association with the Palladium and its transport to Rome by Aeneas. Although many cities claimed ownership of the Palladium, its status as one of Rome’s protective relics, and the relationship with Aeneas and Rome’s foundation, suggests that Phrygian Minerva had a wider role in protecting cities and projecting Roman power. One scholar has even suggested that Rome adopted the Phrygian Minerva in southern Italy after its revitalization by Hellenistic monarchs in order to promote the unity of the Greek Italiote league against the threat posed by Apennine populations.<ref>Graff and Ellis, Minerva and the continuity of cult at Pompeii, p. 293.</ref>
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In the context of the Orphic mysteries Minerva reveals the rhythmical dance of the celestial bodies [12] and while she remains with Iuppiter she is wisdom but when she is in the company of the Dii Consentes she also reveals the power of Virtue. [13]
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The fiery Minerva as a Novensides is known to hurl thunderbolts,[14]to be a Goddess of Victory,[15]Patron Goddess of Domitian as Minerva Chaldica forever immortalized on his coinage,[16]and interpreted by the stoics to be a moon element.[17] The anniversary of Mens (Intelligence) on June 8 finds, at the end of a long day and night of celebration, flute players drunk, in masks and other disguises arrive at the Temple of Minerva in reverence to the Goddess who invented their flutes and their music.[18,19] She is worshipped at Luceria in Apulia as Minerva Achaea, where cultores leave votive gifts. Preserved at this Temple were arms purported to be those of Diomedes himself.[20] Sacred to Her are the Owl and Olive.  
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“Minerva Capta” a foreign local goddess who came to Rome after a successful military campaign. This variant is known to us through the writings of Ovid who reports locating the small shrine (parva delubra) in the city and notes its dedication on the goddess’s birthday (March 19). The origin of the name “Capta” is not completely clear, with links to the goddess’ creative talent as “capital”, references to the story that she leapt forth motherless with her shield from her father's head (“caput”), or because she came to Rome as a captive after the conquest of the Falerii. Although Ovid himself references inscriptions and evidence noting the arrival via the conquest.<ref>Miller, J, ‘The "Fasti" And Hellenistic Didactic: Ovid's Variant Aetiologies’, Arethusa, Vol. 25, No. 1, Reconsidering Ovid's fasti (Winter 1992), p. 25.</ref> 
  
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In Rome she is also known as the Goddess of Warriors, of strategic defense in War, depicted wearing armor, a helmet and carrying a spear.
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“Sulis Minerva” arose from the occupation of Britian after the Romans started identifying the local Celtic goddess Sulis, with Minerva. With evidence found in Bath within Britain, the identities of both goddesses can be found in hybrid.<ref>Odyssey – Ancient History Network, The Complete History Of the Roman Empire, uploaded on April , 2023, video, 2:36:43, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3IIRiSTc3g&ab_channel=Odyssey-AncientHistoryDocumentaries</ref>Sulis Minerva is said to have presided over the hot springs in Bath which can exceed 40 degrees Celsius. This saw the goddess as a patroness of healing in this aspect.<ref>Eberhard Sauer, An inscription from Northern Italy, the Roman Temple Complex in Bath and Minerva as a Healing goddess in Gallo-Roman Religion, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 15(1) 1996: 65</ref> 
  
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== Minerva in Modern Society & Pop Culture ==
  
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“Proud, warlike Goddess, great honor and wisdom of Your Father, powerful in war are You, on whom the grim helmet is borne with its frightful decoration, speckled with the Gorgon's blood that glows more violent with increasing rage, never has Mavors or Bellona with Her battle spear inspired more ardent calls to arms on the war trumpets than You. May You with Your nod accept this sacrificial offering. Whether You come from Mount Pandion to our rites by night, or from dancing happily in Ainian Itone, or from washing once more Your hair in the waters of Libyan Triton, or whether the winged axle of your war chariot, with its paired pure-bred horses carries you astride its beam, shouting aloud, now, to You, we dedicate the shattered spoils of virile men and their battered armour. Should I return to my Parthaonian fields, and upon being sighted Martian Pleuron should throw open wide her gates for me, then amid her hills, at the center of the city, I shall dedicate to you a golden temple where it may be your pleasure to look upon Ionian storms, and where Achelous tosses about his flaxen hair to disturb the sea where it leaves behind the breakers of Echinades. In here will I display accounts of ancestral wars and the death-masks of great hearted kings, and affix the arms of the proud in the rotunda that I have returned with myself, taken at the cost of my own blood, and those, Tritonia, that you will grant when Thebes is captured. There a hundred Calydonian virgins will serve in devotions at your altar, shall duly twine the Actaean torches, and weave from Your chaste olive tree purple sacrificial fillets with snow white strands of wool. At nightly vigils an aged priestess will tend your altar's fire, and never will she neglect to safeguard your modesty, attending in secret to the rites of your boudoir. To you in war, to you in peace, the first fruits of our labors shall be borne, without offence to Diana.”
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Likely due to the vast portfolio the goddess has scope over, as well as her hegemony over wisdom, knowledge, martial prowess and education, Minerva and her image has permeated across cultures through to the present day. From various university and government projects labeled “Minerva”, through to sewing machines and various foods, Minerva has come to be associated with quality and high standards. (See Images)
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Statius Thebaid 2.715-42
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== Minerva in Nova Roma ==
  
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There is no way in this brief treatise can I cover the scope of this Great Goddesses attributes, tales of Her accomplishments and experiences and countless songs and poetry in her honor but I implore anyone to go in search of these many jewels for a rewarding experience.  
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In {{2008}}, the ''[[Aedes_Minervae_(Nova_Roma)|Aedes Minervae]]'', a simple virtual temple to Minerva, was dedicated by [[Lucius Rutilius Minervalis (Nova Roma)|L. Rutilius Minervalis]] in the name of the consuls [[Gaius Fabius Buteo Modianus (Nova Roma)|C. Fabius Buteo Modianus]] and [[Pompeia Minucia Strabo (Nova Roma)|Pomp. Minucia Strabo]] who served in 2759 [[AUC|a.u.c.]].<ref>Nova Roma Inc., Aedes Minervae (Nova Roma), accessed 23 June 2024, http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Aedes_Minervae_(Nova_Roma)</ref>
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I shall end with a very important aspect of Minerva with a piece of history and a finally a touching poem.
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Inscribed plaques dedicated to Minerva the Mindful fashioned by a Roman Matron, Tullia Superiana commemorating the sacrifice of a white cow made in fulfillment of a vow by a slave for the recovery of his sight and a votive display of gratitude for restoring her hair:
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Minerva was famously honored on the seventh day of the Nova Roman ludi Conditorium, {{Mar 4}} {{2008}} (2761 [[AUC|a.u.c.]]). These games were in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the founding of Nova Roma included chariot races, literary contests and history quizzes.<ref>Nova Roma Inc., Ceremony to Minerva ~ Ludi Conditorum 2761 AUC (Nova Roma), accessed 16 April 2024, http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Ceremony_to_Minerva_%7E_Ludi_Conditorum_2761_AUC_(Nova_Roma)</ref>
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Minerva also features as one of three deities honored as patrons of the newly founded Collegium Iurisprudentium, formed in M. Cotta C. Petronio cos. ‡ MMDCCLXXVII a.u.c. This collegium is dedicated to the study of ancient Roman law and its application in Nova Roma. The Collegium aims to provide a service to the Res Publica by offering subject matter expertise to magistratus and cives alike.<ref>Nova Roma Inc., ‘Collegium Iurisprudentium Charter, v2.0, accessed 28 April 24, https://discord.gg/PHg3geUGUR.</ref>
  
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The Nova Roma ''[[Collegium pontificum (Nova Roma)|Collegium Pontificum]]'' appointed [[Decimus Aurelius Ingeniarius (Nova Roma)|D. Aurelius Ingeniarius]] as a ''[[Sacerdos (Nova Roma)|camillus]]'', trainee priest for Minerva, in {{2023}} under ''[https://groups.io/g/TheForumRomanum/message/100312 Decretum pontificum de camillis novis]''.
  
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“Felix Asianus, public slave of the pontiffs, gladly and sincerely discharged his vow of a white heifer to rustic Bona Dea Felicula (Good Goddess Felicula) for the restoration of his eyesight. He had been given up by the doctors, but after ten months he was cured by the favor of the Mistress and her remedies.” (CIL 6.68) [21]
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== References ==
  
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“In payment of her vow Tullia Superiana dedicates this plaque willingly and deservedly to Minerva the Mindful for having restored her hair.” [22]
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<references/>
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“In Vita Minerva”
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Oliver Wendell Holmes
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"Vex not the Muse with idle prayers,--
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She will not hear thy call;
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She steals upon thee unawares,
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Or seeks thee not at all.
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Soft as the moonbeams when they sought
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Endymion's fragrant bower,
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She parts the whispering leaves of thought
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To show her full-blown flower.
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For thee her wooing hour has passed,
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The singing birds have flown,
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And winter comes with icy blast
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To chill thy buds unblown.
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Yet, though the woods no longer thrill
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As once their arches rung,
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Sweet echoes hover round thee still
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Of songs thy summer sung.
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Live in thy past; await no more
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The rush of heaven-sent wings;
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Earth still has music left in store
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While Memory sighs and sings."
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©Aquila 04March2011
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1. Takacs, Sarolta A. (2008) “Vestal Virgins, Sybils, and Matrons” (p. 48)
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2. Fishwick, Duncan (1987). "Seneca and the Temple of Divus Claudius" (pp. 253–254).   
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Britannia 22 (pp. 137–141).
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3. Carter, Jess Benedict (1911) The Religious Life of Ancient Rome” (pp. 25-26).
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4. Florence Dupont, “Daily Life in Ancient Rome”  (p. 154)
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5. Ibid. (p. 200)
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6. Turcan, R. (1998) “The Gods of Ancient Rome” (p.67)
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7. Ovidus, Fasti III; 814
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8. Ibid,  523-710
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9. Ibid. 713-808
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10. Takacs, Sarolta A. (2008) “Vestal Virgins, Sybils, and Matrons” (p. 42)
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11. Bruhl, A.(1953) “Liber Pater” (PP. 13-29)
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12. Proclus, Crat., p. 118
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13. Ibid, Tim., i.52
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14. Dumezil, Georges (1996) “Archaic Roman Religion” Vol II (p. 643) Servius II, Aen, 1:42
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15. Ibid (p. 674)
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16. Ibid (p. 688)
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17. Girard, J. (1981) “Domitien et Minerve : une predilection imperiale” (pp. 233-245
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)
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18. Turcan, R. (1998) “The Gods of Ancient Rome” (p.74)
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19. Ovidus, Fasti VI; 696
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20. Aristotle Mirab. Narrat. 117
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21. Warrior, Valerie M. (2006) “Roman Religion” (p. 26)
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22. Warrior, Valerie M. (2006) “Roman Religion, A Sourcebook” (p. 9)
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[[Category:Roman Gods]]
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Latest revision as of 06:41, 23 June 2024

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This article was written by D. Aurelius, camillus, and should not be modified or copied without permission.

A depiction of Minerva by the artist Joseph Nollekens (1737-1823) on display at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, United States.[1]

Contents

Introduction and Origins

The Roman goddess Minerva, is an Italian goddess with patronage over a large domain. She is the patroness for arts and handicrafts[2] , and has distinct associations with wisdom and commerce. In spite of her martial-like depictions and guardianship of military prowess and victory, she was also a goddess striving for peace. In addition, she also leads in the sphere of education and study, often looked to by students and academics.[3] Schools were under her particular care, and attending school boys in ancient Rome would have holidays during her festivals. They would often bring a gift to their master, called a “Minerval”.[4]


20th century sources believe that Minerva is, in fact a syncretized adaption of the Greek goddess Athena, borrowed through the times of early Eturia. However, many sources find Minerva to be a native Latin goddess with her name derived from the root of the word memini among others. Despite her native origins, very little traces of her cult exist before the introduction of the “Capitoline Triad”.[5] As mentioned by the poet Ennius in the third century BCE, Minerva was one of twelve gods worshipped through the Roman Republic, as part of a group known as the Dii Consentes or Dii Complices; a great assembly of the gods. The head of this assembly was the Capitoline Triad.[6]


The Capitoline Triad, consists of the deities of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. This wasn’t always the case as records from pontifical books suggest that this triad displaced a more ancient triad of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. King Numa, an early king of Rome, had created the three flamines (leading priests) for this earlier triad that served as the leading gods of Rome and may have been the recipients of the spoils of victory in Rome’s early years[7] . It is first noted that the more recent Capitoline triad with Minerva came to preeminence during the late regal period of Rome during the height of Etruscan influence.[8] Despite the early inconsistencies of Minerva in this triad, several early traces identify her origins beginning with the early assimilation between Athena and the Etruscan Menerva, seen on a relief which decorated the column of a “Temple A” from Pyrgi, dated 480 BCE, on which the Etruscan deity takes part at an episode of the Theban legend. There are further appearances on found Etruscan mirrors which present the Greek theme of the Athena/Menerva birth from the head of Greek Zeus/ Etruscan Tinia, or in the company of Herakles, thus being possible to identify Minerva from King Tarquin’s time.[9]


The image of Athena had a major impact upon the iconography and depiction of the Roman Minerva. There is almost no information available regarding the image of Minerva prior to her visual assimilation with Athena. Although they are identical in terms of appearance, they remained distinctive goddesses within their own pantheon. Despite these similarities, there is almost no information regarding the beginnings of Minerva’s cult in Rome she had no festival in the Feriale Duranum and no flamines were ascribed to her cult.[10]


Festivals & Sacrifices

The 'Minerva of Arezzo' is a bronze Etruscan statue dating to the 3rd-2nd century BCE. On display at the Etruscan Archaeological Museum of Florence.[11]

The primary celebration of Minerva is the Quinquatria in March. The name comes from the timing of the event as it coincides with the fifth day after the ides. The event celebrated the anniversary of the temple of Minerva on the Aventine but also extended to include that of Minerva Medica on the Esquiline.[12]


Commencing on the 19th March, the Quinquatria (or Quinquatrus) may have originally been only a single day celebration, according to Varro and Festus. Ovid suggested that it lasted five days and therefore the celebration was afforded its namesake. It may have taken on an additional four days, likely around the time of Julius Caesar, to gratify the people. Ovid suggested that the fifth day of the festival, on March 23, saw the Roman trumpets, used in sacred rites, undergo purification rituals. This purification was more likely to be a separate event known as the Tubilustrium, which hence started the same time as the last day of the Quinquatria.[13]


The Quinquatria celebrated arts and trades including those various professions connected with health. It was marked by days of sacrifices and competitions like gladiatorial games.[14] It became important that on the first day, no blood was shed, so events like the gladiatorial games would commence on the following three or four days. Women would take to consulting fortune-tellers and diviners during this time[15] , and may have created textile masterpieces in dedication to the divine patroness which is depicted in activities seen on the frieze of Nerva’s forum.[16] Records show a procession was often held for the occasion at which the treasured Palladium statue, which had allegedly fallen from Olympus, was stated to be carried.[17]


Ovid makes references that coincide with another smaller festival of Minerva, called the Quinquatrus Minusculae or Quinquatrus Minores (Little Quinquatria), that was celebrated on the Ides of June (13th).[18] A contingent of flute players, the tibicines[19] , are said to have wandered the streets often masked, drunk and often disguised as women. They would play and finish with a finale in front of the temple of Minerva. According to Turcan (2000), this was likely the temple on the Esquiline, as it is stated the precession would meet again six days later on the 19th at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.[20]


Seneca writes about other Capitol rituals that would occur. He noted how, along with Juno, Minerva is said to have had dedicated female hairdressers who would gather and move their fingers around in the way a hairdresser would, as if pampering the goddess. Operating some distance from the temple, they were often accompanied by others holding up mirrors.[21]


As one of the chief gods of the state, many public rituals would often be held in front of the temple of the Capitoline Triad. Citizens would often assemble to observe their magistrates and priests address the gods. One of the very first acts of newly elected consuls was to make a sacrifice and offer prayers at this temple.[22]


The college of the epulones, which was made up of the septemviri epulones (although the number of priests numbered ten under the late Republic), had the duty to feed (epulari) the Capitoline Triad deities. Minerva, along with Jupiter and Juno would be fed in a feast, to which senators would also be invited. This was reported to be done originally as part of the Plebeian Games but would become a feature activity into the imperial era with other hosted games.[23]


Temples and Shrines

A façade of from the Roman temple at Bath, depicting the identifiable shield of Minerva with influences of either Sulis or another hybrid depiction.[24]

“Minerva Conservas” is a food brand in Portugal. Since its founding in 1942, Minerva has been known for its canned fish products, made with fresh, hand-selected fish from the Portuguese coast.[25]

Image curtesy of D. Aurelius.
Minerva depicted on top of the Mechanics’ Institute building in the town of Ballaarat, Australia. This foundation is dedicated to arts, culture and literature in the region.[26]

Image curtesy of D. Aurelius.
The Minerva brand sewing machine. Image curtesy of the Sew What Maryborough – Sewing Machine Museum Victoria, Australia.[27]

References of Minerva are often depicted in video games. Minerva is seen here as a segment of artificial intelligence in the game “Horizon: Zero Dawn” developed by Guerrilla Games in 2017.[28]

Image curtesy of D. Aurelius.

During the early Republic, the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was also jointly dedicated to Juno and Minerva. Before the later Republican era of Rome, this temple was of a far greater scale than had been seen in earlier temples. It was Etruscan in design, likely to pay homage to the late regal rulers at the time it was built. However, Republican rhetoric would suggest that although built by the kings of Rome, it was first dedicated in 509 B.C.E by the first consuls of the newly minted Roman Republic.[29]


It became customary to build “triple-temples“ (Capitolium) to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva of the state triad through various Coloniae, even through to the empire period as well. Such temples include: the Capitolium at Cosa in Etriria founded in 273 B.C.E. and the Capitolium at Sufetula in Africa founded in the second century C.E.[30]


A key cult temple lay on the Aventine, although it is uncertain when it was established. Most likely built around 263 or 262 BCE.[31] This temple to Minerva became the headquarters of a guild of writers and actors, most prominent during the Second Punic War. Minerva was also worshipped at a smaller shrine on Mons Caelius (Caelian Hill) under the name Minerva Capta. This site was said to be erected after the taking of Falerii in the revolt against the Republic in 241 BCE.[32] Colloquially, this shrine became known as the “Minervium” during the Republic. Identified in sources, likely a shortening of original expression “templum minervium”.[33]


Minerva is found to be one the oldest cults in Pompeii, with the temple there likely built in the early part of the 6th century BCE. The temple likely served as a physical landmark on the edge of the Pompeian lava plateau, with vast views over the entire Sarno valley and the sea. Evidence shows it underwent renovations sometime in the late 4th century BCE where it received a new roof feature depicting Hercules and Athena/Minerva Phrygia.[34]


Other temples were dedicated to Minerva throughout Roman history. Pompey is said to have dedicated one in the later Republican era, funded from the spoils of war.[35] The location of this temple is not known to history but some hypotheses believed it to have been located at the foot of the Pincian Hill. More likely, it is one of two known temple locations located along the triumphal path, consistent with other monuments promoted by Pompey. One of these temples is mentioned in the Cataloghi Regionari and is outside the Porta Capena with other triumphal monuments. The other location could be the temple in the area between the Forum and the Velabrum.[36] Emperor Vespasian is another example to have dedicated new temples to Minerva, alongside the cult of Pax and Domitian.[37] Emperor Domitian, claiming the goddess was protecting him, dedicated a temple in her name in the Nerva Forum.[38]


Variations of Minerva

Julius Caesar reported on the Gallic worship of gods that he described as if they were the same as Roman gods. Although the extant Gallic equivalent is not known today, the Gallic Minerva is also said to bestow the principles of arts and crafts.[39]

Isiac hymns, preserved on inscriptions by the followers of the cult of Isis, suggest that Minerva was in fact, a form of the Egyptian cult figure, Isis, worshipped under another name. This also included the deities of Venus and Magna Mater too.[40]


“Minerva Phrygia” has been evaluated as a pro-Roman cult with a Trojan connection associated with the wider series of foundation myths and Greek identity in the Magna Graecia and Sicily regions. Minerva’s appellative Phrygia (and hence her Trojan background) results from her association with the Palladium and its transport to Rome by Aeneas. Although many cities claimed ownership of the Palladium, its status as one of Rome’s protective relics, and the relationship with Aeneas and Rome’s foundation, suggests that Phrygian Minerva had a wider role in protecting cities and projecting Roman power. One scholar has even suggested that Rome adopted the Phrygian Minerva in southern Italy after its revitalization by Hellenistic monarchs in order to promote the unity of the Greek Italiote league against the threat posed by Apennine populations.[41]


“Minerva Capta” a foreign local goddess who came to Rome after a successful military campaign. This variant is known to us through the writings of Ovid who reports locating the small shrine (parva delubra) in the city and notes its dedication on the goddess’s birthday (March 19). The origin of the name “Capta” is not completely clear, with links to the goddess’ creative talent as “capital”, references to the story that she leapt forth motherless with her shield from her father's head (“caput”), or because she came to Rome as a captive after the conquest of the Falerii. Although Ovid himself references inscriptions and evidence noting the arrival via the conquest.[42]


“Sulis Minerva” arose from the occupation of Britian after the Romans started identifying the local Celtic goddess Sulis, with Minerva. With evidence found in Bath within Britain, the identities of both goddesses can be found in hybrid.[43] Sulis Minerva is said to have presided over the hot springs in Bath which can exceed 40 degrees Celsius. This saw the goddess as a patroness of healing in this aspect.[44]


Minerva in Modern Society & Pop Culture

Likely due to the vast portfolio the goddess has scope over, as well as her hegemony over wisdom, knowledge, martial prowess and education, Minerva and her image has permeated across cultures through to the present day. From various university and government projects labeled “Minerva”, through to sewing machines and various foods, Minerva has come to be associated with quality and high standards. (See Images)

Minerva in Nova Roma

In M. Moravio T. Iulio cos. ‡ MMDCCLXI a.u.c., the Aedes Minervae, a simple virtual temple to Minerva, was dedicated by L. Rutilius Minervalis in the name of the consuls C. Fabius Buteo Modianus and Pomp. Minucia Strabo who served in 2759 a.u.c..[45]


Minerva was famously honored on the seventh day of the Nova Roman ludi Conditorium, a.d. IV Non. Mar. ‡ M. Moravio T. Iulio cos. ‡ MMDCCLXI a.u.c. (2761 a.u.c.). These games were in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the founding of Nova Roma included chariot races, literary contests and history quizzes.[46]


Minerva also features as one of three deities honored as patrons of the newly founded Collegium Iurisprudentium, formed in M. Cotta C. Petronio cos. ‡ MMDCCLXXVII a.u.c. This collegium is dedicated to the study of ancient Roman law and its application in Nova Roma. The Collegium aims to provide a service to the Res Publica by offering subject matter expertise to magistratus and cives alike.[47]


The Nova Roma Collegium Pontificum appointed D. Aurelius Ingeniarius as a camillus, trainee priest for Minerva, in C. Cethego Q. Arrio (IV) cos. ‡ MMDCCLXXVI a.u.c. under Decretum pontificum de camillis novis.

References

  1. ↑ Getty Museum Collection, ‘Minerva’, accessed 28 April 24, https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/103RRE#full-artwork-details
  2. ↑ Hammond, N and Scullard, H. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 689.
  3. ↑ Nicolae, M, The Capitoline Triad In Roman Dacia, Peuce S.N. IX, 2011, p. 294.
  4. ↑ Belton, J, An Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology, 2009, p. 180
  5. ↑ Hammond, N and Scullard, H. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 689.
  6. ↑ Nicolae, M, The Capitoline Triad In Roman Dacia, p. 292.
  7. ↑ Mary Beard, John North and Simon Price, ‘Religions of Rome, Volume 2 A Sourcebook’ (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 6.
  8. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 24.
  9. ↑ Nicolae, M, The Capitoline Triad In Roman Dacia, p. 292.
  10. ↑ Ibid, p. 299.
  11. ↑ World History Encyclopedia, ‘Minerva of Arezzo’, accessed 28 April 24,https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2270/minerva-of-arezzo/.
  12. ↑ Robert Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000), 67.
  13. ↑ Bill Thayer, Quinquatrus or Quinquatria, ‘LacusCurtius: Into the Roman World’, last modified December 17, 2006, accessed March 10, 2024, https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Quinquatrus.html
  14. ↑ Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 67.
  15. ↑ Thayer, Quinquatrus or Quinquatria.
  16. ↑ Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 67.
  17. ↑ Jordan, M, Dictionary of Gods and Goddess, (Facts on File New York, 2004), p. 200.
  18. ↑ Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 74.
  19. ↑ Thayer, Quinquatrus or Quinquatria
  20. ↑ Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, 74.
  21. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 234.
  22. ↑ Frances Hahn, “Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns”, in A Companion to Roman Religion, ed. Jörg Rüpke (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007), 238.
  23. ↑ Robert Turcan, “The Gods of Ancient Rome”, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000), 55.
  24. ↑ Odyssey – Ancient History Network, The Complete History Of the Roman Empire.
  25. ↑ Poveira, Minerva Preserves, accessed 16 April 2024, https://www.apoveira.pt/conservas-peixe/conservas-minerva/
  26. ↑ Ballaarat Mechanics' Institute, ‘About Us’, accessed 28 April 24, https://ballaratmi.org.au/about-us/.
  27. ↑ Minerva, History, accessed 16 April 2024, https://www.minerva-boskovice.com/company/history.
  28. ↑ FANDOM Games, MINERVA, accessed 16 April 2024, https://horizon.fandom.com/wiki/MINERVA.
  29. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 24.
  30. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 245.
  31. ↑ Madden, A, Ancient Gods, (London: Future Publishing 2022), p. 76
  32. ↑ Hammond, N and Scullard, H. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 689.
  33. ↑ Cinaglia, T, ‘Minervium vs. Minerva Capta: due facce della stessa medaglia?’, en Ἰlu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones 21, p. 54.
  34. ↑ Graff, I. and Ellis, J, Minerva, urban defenses, and the continuity of cult at Pompeii, Journal of Roman Archaeology 30 (2017), p. 293.
  35. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 1.’, 122.
  36. ↑ Eleonora Zampieri, “Pompey, Minerva and Rome’s Presence in the Near East”, Hermes 148 (March 2020): 326.
  37. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 1.’, 253.
  38. ↑ Madden, Ancient Gods, p. 76.
  39. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 2.’, 55.
  40. ↑ Beard, North and Price, ‘Religions of Rome Vol 1.’, 281.
  41. ↑ Graff and Ellis, Minerva and the continuity of cult at Pompeii, p. 293.
  42. ↑ Miller, J, ‘The "Fasti" And Hellenistic Didactic: Ovid's Variant Aetiologies’, Arethusa, Vol. 25, No. 1, Reconsidering Ovid's fasti (Winter 1992), p. 25.
  43. ↑ Odyssey – Ancient History Network, The Complete History Of the Roman Empire, uploaded on April , 2023, video, 2:36:43, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3IIRiSTc3g&ab_channel=Odyssey-AncientHistoryDocumentaries
  44. ↑ Eberhard Sauer, An inscription from Northern Italy, the Roman Temple Complex in Bath and Minerva as a Healing goddess in Gallo-Roman Religion, Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 15(1) 1996: 65
  45. ↑ Nova Roma Inc., Aedes Minervae (Nova Roma), accessed 23 June 2024, http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Aedes_Minervae_(Nova_Roma)
  46. ↑ Nova Roma Inc., Ceremony to Minerva ~ Ludi Conditorum 2761 AUC (Nova Roma), accessed 16 April 2024, http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Ceremony_to_Minerva_%7E_Ludi_Conditorum_2761_AUC_(Nova_Roma)
  47. ↑ Nova Roma Inc., ‘Collegium Iurisprudentium Charter, v2.0, accessed 28 April 24, https://discord.gg/PHg3geUGUR.

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